Motions Of Sun Research Articles

Investigation of the consistency of changes in the wavelet phase characteristics of heliocosmic and climatic variables and changes in the components of the word water balance. Part 2

The relevance of research: is due to the need to establish true causes and patterns of changes in the hydrometric characteristics of the global water balance as a whole and its components, natural media on Earth.
 Purpose of research: Establishment of patterns of mutual influences and causes of changes in the components of world water balance on Earth: settlement changes in thermal and water resources on the territory of sushi, clouds on continents, lake levels on continents, the Caspian Sea, Arctic Islands, Greenland and mountain glaciers.
 Objects: Temporary series of heliocosmic and global climatic variables constituting a global water balance.
 Methods of research: the method developed by the author of the calculation of the wavelet phase-frequency and phase-temporal characteristics of the group of the studied time series specified at equal intervals of time, with the calculation of their correlation matrices and the construction of the charts of the variables in two coordinate systems, comparative analysis.
 Results of research: It is shown that in cyclical climate change on land, global water balance as a whole and its components in different relative units and phase orientations, depending on the properties of components of water balance, natural environments, two groups of variables are studying: Helicosmic (Baricenric Sun Movements, Solar activity, long-term solar insolation, greenhouse gases, ozone concentration in the ionosphere, elements of the Earth orbit, geomagnetic field) and global temperature climatic variables caused by changes in the helikosmic factors leading from which is the barycentric movements of the Sun. There is a variability of the water balance depending on their geographic locations on continents. It is shown that the calculated changes in thermal and water resources on the territory of the sushi, changes in clouds and levels of lakes on continents at the observed time intervals is significantly interconnected in the phase-frequency domain, coordinated with changes in the heliocosmic variables leading from which is the barycentric movements of the Sun. It is shown that the change in the level of Lake Rudolf, located in Kenya, occurs in antiphase with changes in other lakes from the phase-frequency domain due to changes in the level of the lake in antiphase with changes in evaporation, evaporation and precipitation the calculated changes in thermal and water resources on land ; Such a phenomenon is observed in changes in Lake Neivasha (Kenya). Data analysis obtained at the East station in Antarctica, bottom sediments of the ocean, in 379.3-1.1 thousand years in the past, graphs of changes in the elements of the Earth orbit, established high consistency of changes in the Caspian level with changes in the angle of inclination, precession and eccentricity of the Earth orbits; In Holocene, agreed with changes in solar activity; coordinated with changes in earthquakes, the speed of rotation of the Earth and the duration of the earth's day, as well as the changes in YMO and the El-Nio phenomenon, with changes in evaporation and precipitation on land in the phase-frequency domain due to the influences of heliocosmic factors. It has been established that changes in the components of the water balance of the Arctic Islands, Greenland and the mountain glaciers are divided into two subgroups; The first includes changes in precipitation and drains, to the second, changes in the resulting and increments of balance sheets. The components of the first subgroup are strongly agreed with the changes in the helixosmic factors, the second, with changes in climatic variables with a negative sign in changes in the balances of the Arctic Islands and Greenland; The second subgroup in the balance of mountain glaciers is strongly agreed with changes in the helicosmic variables with a negative sign in the phase-frequency domain in the observed inter. In changes of phase-temporal characteristics of groups of factors are observed lattice structures of differently and unidirectional changes of variables, characterizing stochastic variability in natural environments.

Investigation of temperature gradients in composite girders in the southern region of the black sea

Based on an experimental composite concrete slab-steel beam girder and using a verified finite element thermal model, a case study analysis was performed to evaluate the temperature gradients in composite girders in the Black Sea’s Turkish city Samsun. The case study was conducted based on extreme data records of approximately 50 years. The extreme daily solar radiation and air temperature difference were utilized in finite element thermal analysis for six months that represent the different seasons of the year. The investigated months were the hot months (April, June, and July) and cold months (October, November, and December). The study focused on the vertical temperature gradients (along the vertical centerline of the girder) and the lateral temperature gradients (along the horizontal centerline of the topping concrete slab). The finite element results showed that the maximum vertical temperature gradient occurred in June and was 13.55 °C, while the maximum lateral temperature gradient occurred in December and was 10.11 °C. The results also showed that different behaviors of the positive vertical gradient were recorded for the cold months than those for the hot months. Similarly, the distributions of the positive lateral gradients were different for the two groups of months. These differences were attributed to the different sun movements and solar radiation striking angles in summer and winter.

The sky movement and Tamil thinking in Pattupattu

We could see the rise and set of the planets starting with the Sun. Tamil had many thoughts and opinions on the rise and set of those planets. They had calculated not only Sun’s orbit but also various other stars, planets and their orbital relations as well. Through Sangam literature, one could know that there were experts in calculating the celestial bodies. Subbu Reddiyar explains the poem from ‘puRanaanuuRu’ that there were people who had mastered for years and could tell the everyday measures of ‘the law of the sun and its movement, the orbit surrounding by its movement, the direction of the wind and the sky without an axile’ (puRam 30). Thus, it could be understood that the ancient Tamils were capable of measuring not only the sky but also the movements of Sun and the celestial bodies. That is how he poem mention details about the moon, stars and the movement of the Sun.

Celestial calendar-paintings and culture-based digital storytelling: cross-cultural, interdisciplinary, STEM/STEAM resources for authentic astronomy education engagement

In D(L)akota star knowledge, the Sun is known as Wi and the Moon is Han-Wi. They have an important relationship, husband and wife. The pattern of their ever-changing relationship is mirrored in the motions of Sun and Moon as seen from our backyards, also called the lunar phases. The framework of the cultural teaching is storytelling and relationships. Cultural perspectives in astronomy such as this remind us of how indigenous ways of knowing are rooted in inclusion, engagement, and relevancy. Designed by A. Lee in 2007, the Native Skywatchers initiative seeks to remember and revitalize indigenous star and earth knowledge, promoting the native voice as the lead voice. The overarching goal of Native Skywatchers is to communicate the knowledge that indigenous people traditionally practiced a sustainable way of living and sustainable engineering through a living and participatory relationship with the above and below, sky and earth. In 2012 two indigenous star maps were created: the Ojibwe Giizhig Anung Masinaaigan-Ojibwe Sky Star Map (A. Lee, W. Wilson, C. Gawboy), and the D(L)akota star map, Makoce Wicanhpi Wowapi (A. Lee, J. Rock). In 2016, a collaboration with W. Buck of the Manitoba First Nations Resource Centre (MFNRC), produced a third star map: Ininew Achakos Masinikan- Cree Star Map Book. We aim to improve current inequities in education for native young people especially through STEM engagement, to inspire increased cultural pride, and promote community wellness. Presented here will be recently created resources such as: astronomical calendar-paintings and short videos that exist at the intersection of art-science-culture. As we look for sustainable ways to widen participation in STEM, particularly in astronomy education, part of the conversation needs to consider the place for art and culture in STEM.

Annotated Translations of Three of the Euler’s Papers on Celestial Mechanics

Annotated translations from Latin of three of the Euler’s papers on celestial mechanics are presented, which fall into the category of three-body problems. The first translation deals with an exact solution of three bodies that move around the common center of mass and always line up. This is considered the first work from which the three collinear Lagrange points could be obtained. The second translation deals with motions of Sun, Earth and Moon in syzygy and Moon libration as well, where, for the first time, Euler introduces an archaic form of a Fourier sine series expansion to describe the Moon’s wagging motion. The last translation relates to a paper that was written with the goal of alleviating astronomical computations of the perturbed motion of the Moon around the Earth by the Sun, ending up with eight coupled differential equations for resolving the perturbed motion of this celestial body. Despite showing great analytical skills, Euler gave no indications on how this system of equations could be solved, which renders his efforts practically useless in the determination of the variations of the nodal line and inclination of the Moon’s orbit.

A Comparison of Chinese and Indian Solar Theories in the Sui and Early Tang Periods (Seventh–Eighth Centuries c.e.)

The Sovereign Pole System ( Huang ji li 皇極曆, a.d. 600) is the first Chinese astronomical system to include a solar equation table for calculating the motion of the Sun. From then on, each Chinese system took the solar equation of centre into consideration. Some scholars have argued that Chinese solar theory in the Sui and Tang dynasties was developed independently by Chinese astronomers. However, other scholars have speculated that this theory was ultimately influenced by Babylonian astronomy, through the medium of Indian astronomy. In this paper, we compare Chinese solar theory in the Sui and early Tang periods with Indian solar theory in the sixth century. First, we discuss the content, meaning, and accuracy of the solar equation tables in the Sovereign Pole System, the Great Patrimony System ( Da ye li 大業曆, a.d. 607), and the Great Expansion System ( Dan yan li 大衍曆, a.d. 727), three representative Chinese systems of the Sui and early Tang periods. Then, we discuss the speed of the Sun, the accuracy of the solar equation of centre, and the difference between the motions of the true Sun and mean Sun in the Vāsiṣṭha Siddhānta, Pauliśa Siddhānta, and Romaka Siddhānta, three Indian astronomical works collected in the Pañcasiddhāntikā in the sixth century. Finally, we discuss the similarities and differences between Indian and Chinese solar theories in the Sui and early Tang periods. The results show that while Chinese solar theory in the Sui and early Tang periods was very similar to Indian solar theory in the sixth century, Indian astronomers had a more sophisticated view of solar theory than their Chinese contemporaries, both in relation to the difference between the mean Sun and true Sun and in the selection of the longitude of perigee of the Sun. At the same time, we must note that the influence of Indian solar theory on Chinese solar theory was very limited, even if Chinese solar theory in the Sui and Tang dynasties was possibly influenced by Indian solar theory.

IN-DEPTH TEACHING AS ORIENTED-RESEARCH ABOUT SEASONS AND THE SUN/EARTH MODEL: EFFECTS ON CONTENT KNOWLEDGE ATTAINED BY PRE-SERVICE PRIMARY TEACHERS

Pre-service primary teachers mostly have negative attitudes towards science teaching and learning, and their science background is usually low. This usually results in them feeling unable or unconfident to teach science at school. A previous step to improve their willingness to teach science to children is that they feel they can learn in-depth any science core idea. To do that, a course conducted as oriented-research about a core science problem was developed and used to evaluate the influence of their previous science background and initial attitudes towards science teaching and learning on content knowledge attainment. The chosen science idea was about diurnal astronomy (Sun movements and the Sun/Earth model). Content knowledge attainment was assessed using learning indicators, which represent what pre-service teachers should “know” and “know how” on this science core idea. Overall, pre-service teachers achieved high learning levels on this topic, and no significant differences in content knowledge attained by students according to both initial attitudes and science background were found. This suggests that this teaching methodology could be useful for pre-service teachers to achieve a thorough knowledge on science core ideas, which is considered to be an important step to improve their willingness to teach science at the primary school. Keywords: astronomy education, science content knowledge, teacher education.

“Sun Marker”

“Sun Marker” is a contemporary work of art and science located at an archaeological site in the Southwestern United States. Its origins come from the study of Ancestral Puebloan culture and life-ways and its creation was influenced by the architecture, traditions and observational methods of these prehistoric people, relating celestial movements of Sun, Moon and stars to calendar-keeping. The artist, Joe Pachak, designed “Sun Marker” so that it demonstrated natural light-and-shadow interactions with symbolic rock art images at the times of equinoxes and summer and winter solstices. In doing so, it became apparent that this modern-day piece of art could be used as a tangible laboratory to study light-shadow-icon events of the types being reported as having possibly been created hundreds of years ago. Having noticed interesting events of the types “discovered” by researchers, but not planned by Pachak, the authors joined the artist in a 15-year exploration of his “split boulder-representational” device. Our most important discovery is that completely unintended features, similar to ones passionately reported by researchers, were just as interesting as those carefully engineered into the sculpture. This work resulted in the formulation of vital research questions along with eight criteria offered here for more rigorous field research, with the hope that they might help guide cultural astronomy along the pathway toward becoming a scientifically mature discipline.

The features of sporadic hyperbolic meteors observed by television techniques in the period of 2007–2009

The features of 238 hyperbolic meteors observed within the framework of the Japanese program SonotaCo in the period of 2007–2009 are investigated in this paper. Irregularity of the eccentricities, explicitly dominance of retrograde orbits over direct ones, absence of domination of perihelia closes the ecliptic, irregular distribution of angular elements for these bodies' orbits were noticed. The values of eccentricities are distributed in the interval from 1 up to 1.31. The significant concentration of these particles perihelia closes the anti-apex of the Sun's peculiarity movements in the Galaxy was noticed. Distribution of elements of orbits in the galactic system of coordinates was considered also, however it was not possible to find the appreciable regularities. The distributions of the distant nodes and MOID-Minimum Orbit Intersection Distance of the hyperbolic meteors relatively to the orbits of the planets-giants were investigated as well. However it was not possible to prove, that the majority of the particles could receive the hyperbolic excess of speed due to the gravitational influence of the planets-giants. The statistics of relation of the hyperbolic meteors with 14 known trans-Neptunian planetary bodies brighter 3m.5 is considered. Testing of the distant nodes and MOID values only for 2003 MW12, 2007 OR10 and Qaoaor have the positive results. In the next stage we have made analogical calculations for the 78 TNO having absolute brightness 5m.5 also and obtained the reasonable results for 9 of them.

Ray Tracing for Optimization of a Double Reflector System for Direct Illumination of a Heat Storage

“Solar salt” (potassium and sodium nitrate mixture) is an option for a latent heat storage to be used with solar heat collectors. As the salt melts at about 210 degrees C it can be suitable as a heat storage for cooking applications. A solar salt container to be illuminated directly by the sun rays in should be heated from the top. One way of achieving this is to position the storage below a primary parabolic dish, this having a center hole to allow the rays from a secondary reflector to hit the top plate of the storage.A double reflector system becomes more sensitive to surface imperfections and to the solar tracking accuracy.A 2m diameter parabolic dish with a secondary 0.2 m diameter reflector has been considered as a test system for direct illumination of a heat storage. The optical performance of the system is investigated by means of a ray tracer. The ray tracer is described and a sensitivity study is made with respect to solar tracking accuracy, the effect of mirror tiles instead of smooth surfaces, the positioning and size of the secondary reflector and the effect of illumination of a the top plate from the side (the top plate remaining horizontal during the daily sun movements).A focusing effect is obtained by slightly lifting the secondary absorber above the point of the common focus of the primary and the secondary. The primary reflector should be as smooth as possible, the secondary reflector is less sensitive and could be surfaced with 1-2cm mirror tiles with acceptable performance. A 10cm diameter absorber dish is the minimum size, a 20cm dish is more tolerant for tracking accuracy and for low solar angles. A large absorber dish also reduces the risk of superheating the top plate which has conduction based heat transfer to a salt storage.

The depth of the honeybee's backup sun-compass systems

Honeybees have at least three compass mechanisms: a magnetic compass; a celestial or sun compass, based on the daily rotation of the sun and sun-linked skylight patterns; and a backup celestial compass based on a memory of the sun's movements over time in relation to the landscape. The interactions of these compass systems have yet to be fully elucidated, but the celestial compass is primary in most contexts, the magnetic compass is a backup in certain contexts, and the bees' memory of the sun's course in relation to the landscape is a backup system for cloudy days. Here we ask whether bees have any further compass systems, for example a memory of the sun's movements over time in relation to the magnetic field. To test this, we challenged bees to locate the sun when their known celestial compass systems were unavailable, that is, under overcast skies in unfamiliar landscapes. We measured the bees' knowledge of the sun's location by observing their waggle dances, by which foragers indicate the directions toward food sources in relation to the sun's compass bearing. We found that bees have no celestial compass systems beyond those already known: under overcast skies in unfamiliar landscapes, bees attempt to use their landscape-based backup system to locate the sun, matching the landscapes or skylines at the test sites with those at their natal sites as best they can, even if the matches are poor and yield weak or inconsistent orientation.

Charmed Circle: Stonehenge, Contemporary Paganism, and Alternative Archaeology

AbstractThe impressive stone circle Stonehenge is understood by academic archaeologists to be a site of ritual significance to the prehistoric inhabitants of Wiltshire. It is constructed on cosmological principles based on a solar alignment, reflecting “a distinctive idea of time, which revolved around the cyclical movements of sun, moon, and stars across the heavens, as indicators of the passing seasons” (Fagan 1998:160). This article sketches mainstream archaeological interpretations of Stonehenge, then contrasts them with the popular narrative of its Druidic origin and purpose, which emerged in the seventeenth century. Modern Druids have negotiated the right to perform rituals at Stonehenge with English Heritage, the custodial body with responsibility for the monument, and Druidry has been recognised as a religion in the United Kingdom in 2010 (Beckford 2010). Modern Druidry, an “invented tradition,” conflicts with academic archaeology in its claims regarding Stonehenge (Chippindale 1986:38–58). Postmodern archaeological theories, which privilege “popular folk archaeology” (Holtorf 2005b:11), are more open to vernacular interpretations of artifacts and sites. These perspectives are broadly compatible with the deregulated religio-spiritual marketplace of the twenty-first century, which is characterized by a plethora of new religions and a pluralistic model of religious truth.1

BEES RELATE SUN MAP TO PANORAMA

Knowing the sun's position is crucial for honeybee communication. Without this knowledge it is impossible for hive members to interpret their nest mate's famous waggle dance, where the angle that the dancing insects walk relative to vertical is the same angle that the foragers must fly relative to the sun's position to find nectar. But how do bees communicate when the sun is out of sight? According to William Towne from Kutztown University of Pennsylvania, the insects memorize the sun's position over the day, and they fall back on this memory when the weather is overcast. But for this memorized sun map to mean anything, the insects must have learned the sun's position relative to some aspect of their world that they can refer to. Towne explains that Fred Dyer first showed that bees orient their memory of the sun's position relative to their local landscape in the 1980s. Since then, most people had taken Dyer's results to mean that bees learn the sun's movements in relation to the entire landscape, until Tom Collett of Sussex University reminded Towne that there were other possibilities; such as the bees using a familiar flight path as their reference. Towne decided to retest the insects'sun maps, to see if he could tie the matter up(p. 3729).First he had to be sure that the insects couldn't relate their sun map to any other cues, such as their flight path, so Towne and student Heather Moscrip set up a hive in a field next to a tree-lined corner. They placed a feeder adjacent to the hive so that the foragers' flight path was too short to provide a realistic reference frame for the insects' sun map. Then the duo waited for an overcast day while the bees set about learning their sun map. As soon as the clouds closed in, Towne and Moscrip picked up the hive and transported it to a field that looked identical to the first, but this time the corner was facing in the opposite direction; a mirror image. The sun was in a completely different position relative to the tree-lined corner, but the bees couldn't see it behind the clouds. After moving the feeder away from the hive until it was far enough for the insects to start waggle dancing, Towne began recording their waggle dances.Analyzing the dance directions back in the lab, Towne quickly realised that the bees had got the feeder's position completely wrong. Thinking that they were still at the first site, the bees were dancing as if the sun was over the original field. The insects were remembering the sun's position relative to the first tree-lined corner, and not relating their dances to the sun's true position over the mirror image field. And when Towne and Moscrip repeated the experiment while moving the feeder along different compass bearings, the bees danced again as if they were in the original field. They were definitely referring their sun map to the local landscape panorama, and not to a more limited reference, such as a familiar flight pathTowne admits that he is delighted to have confirmed Dyer's original hypothesis of more than 20 years ago. Meanwhile the bees remain unphased; they knew where the sun was all along.

Cycles

Cycles

Himmelsbeobachtung in karolingischer Zeit. Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Frage der drei erfundenen Jahrhunderte

Eighteen astronomical observations from Western Europe as recorded in several historical sources from the ninth century are confirmed by retrocalculation. Carolingian astronomy was based on the motions of sun and moon and served mainly as a means of calendar computation in the time of Charlemagne. Subsequently eclipses and comets (but not planets’ constellations) were interpreted in a specific astrological manner. A recent hypothesis of three fictitious centuries in the histo|riography of the early middle age is diproved

A Model of Conductive Heat Flow in Forest Edges and Fragmented Landscapes

Although the creation of edges during forest fragmentation can have important abiotic and biotic impacts, especially under conditions of future climate change, mechanistic models of edge effects have not been forthcoming. A simple numerical model of two-dimensional heat flow is developed and applied to a vertical forest/clearcut edge profile and to simulated fragmented landscapes. Height-specific thermal diffusivity and conductivity in the forest were assumed to vary in proportion to foliage densities measured in the central Amazon. In the edge profile, the clearcut that abutted the edge served as a heat source and its temperature was maintained at a constant value higher than in the initially cooler forest. In the fragmented landscapes, simulated treefall gaps were heat sources whose temperature varied with sun movements during the day. Gap frequency was varied so as to approximate the gap coverage observed in selectively logged forests. In one set of simulations, temperature in the openings was systematically varied; in another, thermal diffusivity of the forest was varied. Along the edge profile, high temperatures in the clearcut were rapidly transmitted into the upper canopy due to additive edge effects. Temperatures in the forest understory were also very sensitive to clearcut temperatures due to relatively sparse understory foliage. An overall increase in forest diffusivity led to markedly higher temperatures close to the edge and a more even temperature distribution among height strata. In fragmented landscapes, total gap coverage and additivity from neighboring gaps strongly influenced forest temperatures. At low conductivities, heat flowed only into the forest close to the gaps and hence forest temperature increased almost linearly with gap area. However, at high conductivities, heat flowed far into the forest and forest temperature varied as a function of gap density in the surrounding neighborhood. Because of these additive effects, slight increases in total gap area led to disproportionate changes in the thermal profile of the landscape. These results have important implications for the conservation of forest ecosystems.

Review Paper: Innovative daylighting: Review of systems and evaluation methods

New day lighting systems such as the light pipe, light shelf, mirrored louvres and prismatic glazing have two main objectives: to bring daylight deeper into a space, and to control and distribute direct sunlight so that this can be used as an effective working illuminant. While a large number of devices has been proposed, little has been done to show rigorously whether they do in fact save energy or improve the internal environment. This paper describes the available systems and gives initial design guidelines. Sunlight-only systems appear to be inappropriate for the UK; enough diffuse sky light must enter the space and this can be checked using the average daylight factor method in the CIBSE Applications Manual Window Design. Whatever system is chosen, it should cope with the sun's movements; it is unreasonable to expect occupants to make adjustments continually. Good control of electric lighting will be required and maintenance needs to be carefully planned. Further work is still necessary before the cost effectiveness of these systems can be evaluated. The paper outlines photometric and calculation techniques being developed to assess these new options in daylighting design.

An Ancient Method of Finding and Extending Direction

The ability of the ancient Egyptian surveyors to orient some of their monuments to the meridian with accuracy has long perplexed modern societies. Although generally their temples were not well placed, the pyramids, and especially the Great Pyramid, were oriented almost precisely to True Geographical North. To account for this, various methods have been proposed which range from pure chance to a precise star measuring system. I believe, however, the means used for orienting the pyramids was actually based on the movements of the sun. Many ancient cultures have made use of the sun's movements by measuring its shadows with an instrument called a gnomon, a pole placed vertically on the ground. Ancient pictographs show the Egyptians, too, made use of this instrument. With the gnomon and a notched device called a bay (once considered to be a means for sighting distant stars), they were able to read the shadows with precision. In addition, the direction found by this gnomon, although short, can be extended accurately by use of the Stretching of the Cord ceremony, a foundation-laying ritual. The state of ancient Egyptian technology indicates that the pyramid builders had access to only the most rudimentary devices. For example, the magnetic compass, which we take for granted, was unknown to them. Indeed, if they had been acquainted with its use, the magnitude of error would have been much greater, for the north magnetic pole, which the needle seeks, is not on the meridian as is the geographical pole but varies according to the place and the year the reading is taken. In addition, their knowledge of astronomy was at a very elementary level, their greatest astronomical achievement being the calendar.1 Whatever means were used by the ancient surveyors, the results are truly remarkable.

Myth, Its Meaning and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures (review)

272 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY But those comparisons are ruled out on the theory that the forms are the world. Gunnell has not, I believe, resolved the issue of whether the relationship between the natural world and the symbolic world is a natural one or a (merely) symbolic one, and this leaves a tension in his work which he resolves only by arbitrarily taking one side and then another. STANLEY M. DAUGERT Western Washington State College Myth, Its Meaning and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures. By G. S. Kirk. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press, 1970. Pp. xii+299. $7.95) Why is myth of such compelling interest? All mythographers have addressed themselves to that question. The trouble is they have tended to make myths in the act of interpreting them. In Frazer and Jane Harrison, not to mention the even freer fancies of Robert Graves, one sees sacrificial kings and great mothers rutting in new plowed furrows behind ritual facades in every myth. There may be partial historical truth in this, but it leaves the strange fascination myth has for us untouched. Mythographers like Levi-Strauss or Eliade address themselves more specifically to our psychological problems with myth, and in consequence large scale philosophical theories about the meaning of social life and its relation to the cosmos are invoked as ways of translating myth into current idiom. Thus Levi-Strauss sees large-scale polarities in human life, like that between the social and the wild, the ruled and the lawless, the civilized and natural, the raw and the cooked, exemplified in virtually every cosmology under the sun. These theories have the same kind of fascination as the myths themselves. They speak to universals of human experience--love and strife, community and individuality, generation and corruption. It is no great task to read these themes into tales, ancient or modern. All the same such mythography is literary criticism. It explains the value of the stories to us. Does it also explain the genesis or historical use of myth? Most mythographers say so, and rely on the ubiquity of certain story-types and themes to give historical force to their literary exegeses. However widely their interpretations vary, all of them manage to make justificatory use of that fact. That has to make us wonder. Consider just one case--the flood. We never hear the end of the remarkable diffusion of that story--including places as remote from the possibility of flood as the globe affords. Well, did the story get carried about in the course of migration and trade? Or does it represent some common idea of catastrophe, some obscure reference to amniotic fluid, some racial memory, ritual device, or astronomical observation ~ indigenous to all the tribes of men? How can one do other than despair in the face of such a question? For one thing these explanations are surely compatible, as anthropologists after their tiresome battle over diffusion came to realize. For another, though the ubiquity of a myth, and par- ! 1 This last according to the recent remarkable affair with mythmaking by Giorgio di Santillana and Bertha yon Dechend in Hamlet's Mill (Boston: Gambit, Inc., 1969), where the authors suggest that myths tell a story in codes about the movements of sun, moon and planets, and a more awesome tale about the precession of the equinoxes. No one will challenge the authors' ingenuity, but their interpretation does require us to believe that at least three to four thousand years before Hipparchos, neolithic farmers knew that the pole shifted among the stars and that the sun's position at any point in the year slipped backward at approximately one zodiacal sign per 2000 years. BOOK REVIEWS 273 ticularly its localization in contexts that make its terms almost unintelligible, is a fascinating question, it is not clear how we could have the means to answer it. What we have of myth except for cases of living tales (i.e., told and believed by a community), is always and by admission late compilation, itself (more than likely) an interpretation of some long tortuous affair of oral hand-me-downs, and therefore more on a par with mythography than with...

SUN COMPASS ORIENTATION OF PIGEONS UPON EQUATORIAL AND TRANS-EQUATORIAL DISPLACEMENT

1. Five homing pigeons were directionally trained at Durham, N. C. (36° 00' N; 78° 56' W). An automatically recording and rewarding cage was used. The directional response of the birds was tested upon displacement to Belém, Brazil (1° 27' S; 48° 25' W) and subsequently to Montevideo, Uruguay (34° 53' S; 56° 05' W). The birds were prevented from directly seeing the sun except for the actual test periods of about 10 minutes on each occasion.2. The birds clearly did not allow for the respective local sun movements in South America but referred to the sun as if it were the sun at Durham. The choices in South America were more widely scattered than those at home.