Movement Of Bees Research Articles

Taxonomic and Functional Diversity of Bees in Traditional Agroecosystems and Tropical Forest Patches on the Yucatan Peninsula

Background and Research Objectives: Habitat matrices of intensive agricultural use are generally inhospitable to native bees in fragmented forests. However, in some tropical regions of the world, agricultural landscapes are dominated by traditional agroecosystems, which harbor high plant diversity and are subject to low-intensity management. These agroecosystems can therefore provide suitable habitats and important floral resources for the bee community. The objective of this study was to compare the taxonomic and functional diversity of bees in traditional agroecosystems and forest patches within an agricultural landscape of the Yucatan Peninsula. Methods: Sampling was conducted in two traditional agroecosystems (homegardens and a rainfed polyculture known as milpa) and forest patches as a control (N= 24 sites in total. Hereafter: habitats), using two complementary sampling techniques: pan traps and a sweep net. Taxonomic and functional diversity metrics were calculated and compared among habitats. Results: The three habitats were generally similar in terms of taxonomic and functional diversity. Differences were only detected among habitats in the inverse of Simpson’s diversity index and number of functional groups (functional entities), with higher values in the agroecosystems than in the forest. Conclusion: Taxonomic and functional diversity was similar in the traditional agroecosystems and forest patches, suggesting that these agroecosystems can provide temporal adequate resources for most bee functional groups and that movement of bees is possible among these habitats. Conservation Implications: Maintenance of low-intensity management practices and high (agro)biodiversity found in traditional agroecosystems is crucial for the conservation of native bees. It is therefore important to incorporate these systems into management strategies at the landscape level. Since traditional agroecosystems and forests have different land tenure systems (government, private, and communal), conservation strategies at this level require the involvement of different sectors of society.

Optimizing the Design of an Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor for Electric Vehicles with a Hybrid ABC-SVM Algorithm

This paper presents a comprehensive investigation of the optimal design of an interior permanent magnet synchronous motor (IPMSM) for electric vehicles (EVs), utilizing the hybrid artificial bee colony algorithm–support vector machine (HAS) algorithm. The performance of the drive motor is a crucial determinant of the overall vehicle performance, particularly in EVs that rely solely on a motor for propulsion. In this context, interior permanent magnet synchronous motors (IPMSMs) offer a compelling choice due to their high torque density, wide speed range, superior efficiency, and robustness. However, accurate analysis of the nonlinear characteristics of IPMSMs necessitates finite element analysis, which can be time-consuming. Therefore, research into methods for deriving an optimal model with minimal computation is of significant importance. The HAS is a powerful multimodal optimization technique that is capable of exploring several optimal solutions. It enhances the navigation capability by combining the artificial bee colony algorithm (ABC) with the kernel support vector machine (KSVM). Specifically, the algorithm improves the search ability by optimizing the movement of bees in each region generated by the KSVM. Furthermore, hybridization with the Nelder–Mead method ensures accurate and quick convergence at pointers discovered in the ABC. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm, this study compared its performance with a conventional algorithm in two mathematical test functions, verifying its remarkable performance. Finally, the HAS algorithm was applied to the optimal design of the IPMSM for EVs. Overall, this paper provides a thorough investigation of the application of the HAS algorithm to the design of IPMSMs for electric vehicles, and its application is expected to benefit from the combination of machine-learning techniques with various other optimization algorithms.

Using geometric morphometrics to determine the "fittest" floral shape: A case study in large-flowered, buzz-pollinated Meriania hernandoi.

Floral shape (relative arrangement and position of floral organs) is critical in mediating fit with pollinators and maximizing conspecific pollen transfer particularly in functionally specialized systems. To date, however, few studies have attempted to quantify flowers as the inherently three-dimensional (3D) structures they are and determine the effect of intraspecific shape variation on pollen transfer. We here addressed this research gap using a functionally specialized system, buzz pollination, in which bees extract pollen through vibrations, as a model. Our study species, Meriania hernandoi (Melastomataceae), undergoes a floral shape change from pseudocampanulate corollas with more actinomorphically arranged stamens (first day) to open corollas with a more zygomorphic androecium (second day) over anthesis, providing a natural experiment to test how variation in floral shape affects pollination performance. In one population of M. hernandoi, we bagged 51 pre-anthetic flowers and exposed half of them to bee pollinators when they were in either stage of their shape transition. We then collected flowers, obtained 3D flower models through x-ray computed tomography for 3D geometric morphometric analyses, and counted the pollen grains remaining per stamen (male pollination performance) and stigmatic pollen loads (female pollination performance). Male pollination performance was significantly higher in open flowers with zygomorphic androecia than in pseudo-campanulate flowers. Female pollination performance did not differ among floral shapes. These results suggest that there is an "optimal" shape for male pollination performance, while the movement of bees around the flower when buzzing the spread-out stamens results in sufficient pollen deposition regardless of floral shape.

Exposure to a 900 MHz electromagnetic field induces a response of the honey bee organism on the level of enzyme activity and the expression of stress-related genes.

There are many artificial sources of radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) in the environment, with a value between 100 MHz and 6 GHz. The most frequently used signal is with a frequency of around 900 MHz. The direction of these changes positively impacts the quality of life, enabling easy communication from almost anywhere in the world. All living organisms in the world feel the effects of the electromagnetic field on them. The observations regarding the influence of a RF-EMF on honey bees, describing the general impact of RF-EMF on the colony and/or behavior of individual bees, such as reduction in the number of individuals in colonies, extended homing flight duration, decrease in breeding efficiency, changes in flight direction (movement of bees toward the areas affected by RF-EMF), increase in the intensity and frequency of sounds characteristic for those announcing the impending danger. In this work, we describe the changes in the levels of some of the stress-related markers in honey bees exposed to varying intensities and duration of RF-EMF. One-day-old honeybee worker bees were used for the study. The bees were randomly assigned to 9 experimental groups which were exposed to the following 900 MHz EMF intensities: 12 V/m, 28 V/m, and 61 V/m for 15 min, 1 h and 3 h. The control group was not exposed to the RF-EMF. Each experimental group consisted of 10 cages in which were 100 bees. Then, hemolymph was collected from the bees, in which the activity was assessed AST, ALT, ALP, GGTP, and level of nonenzymatic antioxidants albumin, creatinine, uric acid, and urea. Bees were also collected for the analysis of rps5, ppo, hsp10, hsp70, hsp90, and vitellogenin gene expression. Our study shows that exposure to a 900 MHz electromagnetic field induces a response in the honey bees that can be detected in the level of enzyme activity and the expression of stress-related genes. The response is similar to the one previously described as a result of exposition to UVB irradiation and most likely cannot be attributed to increased temperature.

An evidence-based rationale for a North American commercial bumble bee clean stock certification program

The commercial production and subsequent movement of bumble bees for pollination of agricultural field and greenhouse crops is a growing industry in North America and globally. Concerns have been raised about the impacts of pathogen spillover from managed bees to wild pollinators, including from commercial bumble bees. We recommend development of a program to mitigate disease risk in commercial bumble bee production, which will in turn reduce disease stressors on wild pollinators and other insects. We provide recommendations for the components of a clean stock program with specific best management practices for rearing commercial bumble bees including related products such as wax, pollen, and nesting material.

Bee species perform distinct foraging behaviors that are best described by different movement models

In insect-pollinated plants, the foraging behavior of pollinators affects their pattern of movement. If distinct bee species vary in their foraging behaviors, different models may best describe their movement. In this study, we quantified and compared the fine scale movement of three bee species foraging on patches of Medicago sativa. Bee movement was described using distances and directions traveled between consecutive racemes. Bumble bees and honey bees traveled shorter distances after visiting many flowers on a raceme, while the distance traveled by leafcutting bees was independent of flower number. Transition matrices and vectors were calculated for bumble bees and honey bees to reflect their directionality of movement within foraging bouts; leafcutting bees were as likely to move in any direction. Bee species varied in their foraging behaviors, and for each bee species, we tested four movement models that differed in how distances and directions were selected, and identified the model that best explained the movement data. The fine-scale, within-patch movement of bees could not always be explained by a random movement model, and a general model of movement could not be applied to all bee species.

Illegalities in the online trade of stingless bees in Brazil

Abstract Stingless bees are commercialised in Brazil through the internet. Such trade has mixed populations and introduced species, allows the potential dissemination of hitchhiker symbionts and diseases, and mostly does not follow national legislation policies. At least 33 species of stingless bees have been exploited by e‐commerce; eight others were not confirmed. All transactions found are in the surface web and most sellers do not fulfil legal requirements. Such results suggest that there is little need of anonymity for sellers, a fact that strengthens conclusions on the recurrently reported lack of successful law enforcement against illegal wildlife trade in the country. Critical geographical zones in Brazil, where sellers of stingless beehives are concentrated, are primarily in the Atlantic Forest. Urgent policy measures and scientific evaluations are necessary for both conservation of bees and risk control of pathogens. The most promising strategy to avoid the threats regarding movement of bees is the education of stingless bee keepers.

The Movement of Western Honey Bees (Apis mellifera L.) Among U.S. States and Territories: History, Benefits, Risks, and Mitigation Strategies

Beekeeping is a cornerstone activity that has led to the human-mediated, global spread of western honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) outside their native range of Europe, western Asia, and Africa. The exportation/importation of honey bees (i.e., transfer of honey bees or germplasm between countries) is regulated at the national level in many countries. Honey bees were first imported into the United States in the early 1600’s. Today, honey bee movement (i.e., transport of honey bees among states and territories) is regulated within the United States at the state, territory, and federal levels. At the federal level, honey bees present in the country (in any state or territory) can be moved among states and territories without federal restriction, with the exception of movement to Hawaii. In contrast, regulations at the state and territory levels vary substantially, ranging from no additional regulations beyond those stipulated at the federal level, to strict regulations for the introduction of live colonies, packaged bees, or queens. This variability can lead to inconsistencies in the application of regulations regarding the movement of honey bees among states and territories. In November 2020, we convened a technical working group (TWG), composed of academic and USDA personnel, to review and summarize the (1) history of honey bee importation into/movement within the United States, (2) current regulations regarding honey bee movement and case studies on the application of those regulations, (3) benefits associated with moving honey bees within the United States, (4) risks associated with moving honey bees within the United States, and (5) risk mitigation strategies. This review will be helpful for developing standardized best practices for the safe movement of honey bees between the 48 contiguous states and other states/territories within the United States.

Genomic divergence and a lack of recent introgression between commercial and wild bumblebees (Bombus terrestris).

The global movement of bees for agricultural pollination services can affect local pollinator populations via hybridization. When commercial bumblebees are of the same species but of different geographic origin, intraspecific hybridization may result in beneficial integration of new genetic variation, or alternatively may disrupt locally adapted gene complexes. However, neither the existence nor the extent of genomic introgression and evolutionary divergence between wild and commercial bumblebees is fully understood. We obtained whole‐genome sequencing data from wild and commercial Bombus terrestris collected from sites in Southern Sweden with and without long‐term use of commercially imported B. terrestris. We search for evidence of introgression, dispersal and genome‐wide differentiation in a comparative genomic analysis of wild and commercial bumblebees. Commercial B. terrestris were found in natural environments near sites where commercial bumblebees were used, as well as drifting wild B. terrestris in commercial bumblebee colonies. However, we found no evidence for widespread, recent genomic introgression of commercial B. terrestris into local wild conspecific populations. We found that wild B. terrestris had significantly higher nucleotide diversity (Nei's pi, π), while the number of segregating sites (Watterson's theta, θw) was higher in commercial B. terrestris. A highly divergent region on chromosome 11 was identified in commercial B. terrestris and found to be enriched with structural variants. The genes present in this region are involved in flight muscle contraction and structure and pathogen immune response, providing evidence for differing evolutionary processes operating in wild and commercial B. terrestris. We did not find evidence for recent introgression, suggesting that co‐occurring commercial B. terrestris have not disrupted evolutionary processes in wild B. terrestris populations.

DIVERSITY OF THE CLOSED-NESTED HONEY BEES (APIDAE: APIS SPP.) AND THE TRADITIONAL HONEY COLLECTING AND BEEKEEPING IN FOUR ISLANDS OF INDONESIA

The closed-nested honey bees are an important group that has been successfully bred traditionally and in a modern way. The traditional honey beekeeping practices are still favorable by local people living near natural habitats. Many rural areas in Indonesia are well known as producers of honey from the traditional honey collecting and traditional honey beekeeping of the closed-nested honey bees. However, there is limited information on the diversity of the honey bees that had supported the honey productions and their traditional honey beekeeping. This research was to provide an overview of the diversity of the honey bee species that are used in the wild honey collecting and their traditional honey beekeeping in four selected study sites in the islands of Java, Bawean, Kalimantan, and Peleng. We recorded three species of closed-nested native honey bees in the traditional honey collecting and traditional honey beekeeping, namely Apis cerana, A. koschevnikovi, and A. nigrocincta. We observed that traditional beekeeping of A. cerana was carried out in Tasikmalaya and Bawean Island, and that of A. cerana and A. koschevnikovi were carried out in Kayan Hilir. On Peleng Island, people do not do beekeeping but collect honey directly from the forest. Honey collecting and beekeeping practices are related to changes in the seasons of the flowering period in their habitats. The knowledge of the flowering period is needed to know the seasonal movement of honey bees from forest to village and vice versa.

Srtsabc Based Self-Regulating Routing Algorithm (Sr3ta(R))

MANETs (Mobile Ad Hoc Networks) are unique types of decentralised wireless networks that do not need any pre-existing communication infrastructure between the nodes. In Mobile Ad Hoc Networks, each node is involved in routing by forwarding data packets to other nodes, and thereby determining the nodes are dynamically forwarded on the basis of network connectivity. The establishment of an efficient routing mechanism for communication between nodes as these nodes move freely with constantly changing topology is one of the important issues in MANETs. In order to keep track of the constantly changing topology of the network, successful optimised techniques are needed. In this paper, hereby propose a SRTSABC Based Self-Regulating Routing Algorithm SR3TA(R) by considering a random set of source and destination nodes and exchanges between them by the Bees. The pheromone tables and data structures are produced during the movement of bees to record the trip time of the nodes. Extensive simulations are conducted to assess the efficacy of the proposed algorithm by manipulating various parameters. The final results obtained are compared with two well known algorithms namely as ZBMRP, DCFP and FF-AOMDV. SR3TA(R) Algorithm with regard to different performance metrics such as the number of data packets sent, Throughput, End-to - End delay and Latency. The final results obtained show that the performance of the proposed SR3TA(R) algorithm is greater than the ZBMRP, DCFP and FF-AOMDV algorithms.

Narrow anthropogenic linear corridors increase the abundance, diversity, and movement of bees in boreal forests

Understanding how invertebrates respond to disturbance is important to maintaining biodiversity. In western Canadian boreal forests, anthropogenic linear corridors associated with energy exploration are a pervasive disturbance that affect many species. Trees and large shrubs are removed in a grid of narrow corridors, but the understory vegetation is generally maintained, mimicking early seral conditions. Little is known about how bees, an important group of pollinators, respond to linear corridors, with their response having important implications for plant-pollinator communities. Here, we investigated how bee abundance, diversity, species composition, and movement respond to these anthropogenic linear corridors, locally known as seismic lines. We compared bee abundance and diversity from pan traps on seismic lines (6 – 12 m wide) to traps placed 50 m into the adjacent forest interior, across 12 replicated sites. Malaise traps were used to measure bee movements on seismic lines relative to paired interior forests, but also with respect to flight direction relative to the orientation of seismic lines. Abundance and richness of bees were 3-times and 1.5-times higher, respectively, on seismic lines compared to the forest interior, with significant differences in species composition. Bees were more than twice as abundant and diverse in malaise traps that caught bees flying along seismic lines than any other combination of trap orientation and location. These results demonstrate that narrow anthropogenic linear corridors are locally increasing bee abundance and diversity in boreal forests, as well as use of these lines for movement. These results have major implications for boreal forest plant-pollinator communities.

Mark-recapture experiments reveal foraging behavior and plant fidelity of native bees in plant nurseries.

Understanding the spatial and temporal foraging patterns of pollinators is essential to conserving these organisms in human-modified landscapes, such as agroecosystems (Cranmer et al. 2011). Particularly, understanding foraging fidelity (i.e., returns to a particular plant species or area) is crucial for providing supportive habitats. Numerous approaches have been used to discern the movement and foraging of individual bees (reviewed by Mola & Williams 2019), ranging from highly technological to more traditional methods like mark-release-recapture experiments. While mark-recapture experiments are often hampered by low recapture rates, density dependence, and logistical constraints (Mola and Williams 2019), they can help us understand short-term local movement patterns (Dorchin et al. 2013) and fidelity (Ogilvie and Thomson 2016) of highly mobile organisms like bees.

Abundance and diversity of pollinators on green roofs are affected by environmental factors

Bees provide a variety of ecological services for urban ecosystems, while green roofs can also be of high value to bees through providing habitats and foraging sites. In this study, four hypotheses about impacts on abundance and diversity of pollinators were proposed from the roof and the surrounding environment. The evidences revealed that the height of the building affected the diversity of some bee species; increasing proportions of surrounding green space helped to increase abundance of bees and wasps; the colonies of bees were significantly affected by habitat connectivity, a frequent movement of bees and other mobile insects between roofs and ground guaranteed pollination of plants; plentiful plants combination was better than a single species in roof ecosystem services, and native forbs were beneficial for pollinations and foraging of pollinators; using fine substrate on green roofs may have a greater ecological value than common soil.

Effects of Some Entomopathogen Fungi on Apis mellifera L. and Bombus terrestris L.

Bees are essential elements of agricultural production because of their role in pollination. However, some practices during production, especially pesticide applications have negative effects on bee life and behaviours. In order to decrease the side effects of pesticides, alternative methods, especially biological control, gained importance. In this study, effects of preparations containing; Beaveria bassiana, Verticillium lecanii and Metarhizium anisopliae var. anisopliae, and also Chlorpyrifos-ethyl for comparison, on Apis mellifera and Bombus terrestris, were investigated. Preparations were applied with two different methods; directly as food and by spraying, with concentrations recommended by the producer companies. In the first method, bees were fed with 5 ml solutions of the preparations mixed with sucrose solution and antenna, wing, leg and abdomen movements of the bees were controlled and scored 4 hours after applications. In the second method, bees were sprayed with the preparations and mortality rates were found. As a result of feeding method, entomopathogen preparations slightly affected the movement of the honey bees, while Chlorpyrifos-ethyl, almost totally inhibited their movement. Similarly, entomopathogens had no harmful effect on the movement of bombus bees, but the insecticide totally inhibited their movement. In the spraying method, the insecticide killed all the individuals of both bee species, while entomopathogens caused the death of only a few individuals.

Mite bombs or robber lures? The roles of drifting and robbing in Varroa destructor transmission from collapsing honey bee colonies to their neighbors.

When honey bee colonies collapse from high infestations of Varroa mites, neighboring colonies often experience surges in their mite populations. Collapsing colonies, often called “mite bombs”, seem to pass their mites to neighboring colonies. This can happen by mite-infested workers from the collapsing colonies drifting into the neighboring colonies, or by mite-free workers from the neighboring colonies robbing out the collapsing colonies, or both. To study inter-colony mite transmission, we positioned six nearly mite-free colonies of black-colored bees around a cluster of three mite-laden colonies of yellow-colored bees. We then monitored the movement of bees between the black-bee and yellow-bee colonies before, during, and after mite-induced collapse of the yellow-bee colonies. Throughout the experiment, we monitored each colony's mite level. We found that large numbers of mites spread to the black-bee colonies (in both nearby and distant hives) when the yellow-bee colonies collapsed from high mite infestations and became targets of robbing by the black-bee colonies. We conclude that “robber lures” is a better term than “mite bombs” for describing colonies that are succumbing to high mite loads and are exuding mites to neighboring colonies.

Impacts of deforestation on plant-pollinator networks assessed using an agent based model.

Plant-pollinator networks have been widely used to understand the ecology of mutualistic interactions between plants and animals. While a number of general patterns have been identified, the mechanisms underlying the structure of plant-pollinator networks are poorly understood. Here we present an agent based model (ABM) that simulates the movement of bees over heterogeneous landscapes and captures pollination events, enabling the influence of landscape pattern on pollination networks to be explored. Using the model, we conducted a series of experiments using virtual landscapes representing a gradient of forest loss and fragmentation. The ABM was able to produce expected trends in network structure, from simulations of interactions between individual plants and pollinators. For example, results indicated an increase in the index of complementary specialization (H2’) and a decline in network connectance with increasing forest cover. Furthermore, network nestedness was not associated with the degree of forest cover, but was positively related to forest patch size, further supporting results obtained in the field. This illustrates the potential value of ABMs for exploring the structure and dynamics of plant-pollinator networks, and for understanding the mechanisms that underlie them. We attribute the results obtained primarily to a shift from specialist to generalist pollinators with increasing forest loss, a trend that has been observed in some field situations.

Hissing of A. cerana japonica is not only a direct aposematic response but also a frequent behavior during daytime

Hissing behavior of honey bees is simultaneous wing movement of multiple honey bees, and loud sounds or vibrations are produced from their movements. In previous the study, hissing sound of honey bees has historically been considered as an aposematic signal. This is because hissing is generally observed when disturbance occur, such as mechanical disturbance or visually disturbing stimuli like hornets approaching the colony. Few studies, however, have investigated situations in which honey bees hiss. In this study, 24-h sound recording and video monitoring were conducted to investigate when the Japanese honey bees (Apis cerana japonica) hissed and checked the external environment of the colony when they hissed. As a result, we found that A. cerana japonica hissed not only when hornets approached but also when there was no obvious threatening stimulus outside the colony. In addition, clear diurnal patterns of hissing were observed. It is still not clear whether hissing in A. cerana japonica is more than aposematic signal or not, but our findings of unique occurrence patterns of their hissing raise question about the potential function of hissing behavior in A. cerana japonica.

GRAPHITE: A Graphical Environment for Scalable in situ Video Tracking of Moving Insects.

1. Methods for measuring animal movement are critical for understanding numerous ecological and evolutionary processes. However, few methods are available for small organisms, and even fewer methods offer consistent individual-level resolution while remaining affordable, scalable and operable in the field. 2. We describe a low-cost animal movement tracking method with a user-friendly graphical interface, called GRAPHITE. Our automated software can quantify motions of insects by offline video analysis of inexpensive and lightweight human-readable tags attached to individual insects. The integrated graphical editor provides a full-featured environment for users to review the generated tracking data and make individual- or group-level edits. 3. GRAPHITE is a novel video analysis and graphical editing software (MATLAB v.9.0.0+) that identifies tags in image frames with a minimal false negative rate, links sequences of corresponding tags into "tracks" for each individual insect, infers the tag identifier, and provides a user-friendly graphical environment for editing tracking data. Users can either batch process raw video data using the full analysis pipeline or execute GRAPHITE modules independently for a tailored analysis. 4. We demonstrate the efficacy of the developed software with a specific application to the movement of honey bees at the entrance of hives. However, this system can be easily modified to track individually marked insects of 3 mm and larger. A notable advantage of this method is its ability to provide easy access to individual-level tracking data using human-readable tags.

Using whole genome sequencing to study American foulbrood epidemiology in honeybees.

American foulbrood (AFB), caused by Paenibacillus larvae, is a devastating disease in honeybees. In most countries, the disease is controlled through compulsory burning of symptomatic colonies causing major economic losses in apiculture. The pathogen is endemic to honeybees world-wide and is readily transmitted via the movement of hive equipment or bees. Molecular epidemiology of AFB currently largely relies on placing isolates in one of four ERIC-genotypes. However, a more powerful alternative is multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) using whole-genome sequencing (WGS), which allows for high-resolution studies of disease outbreaks. To evaluate WGS as a tool for AFB-epidemiology, we applied core genome MLST (cgMLST) on isolates from a recent outbreak of AFB in Sweden. The high resolution of the cgMLST allowed different bacterial clones involved in the disease outbreak to be identified and to trace the source of infection. The source was found to be a beekeeper who had sold bees to two other beekeepers, proving the epidemiological link between them. No such conclusion could have been made using conventional MLST or ERIC-typing. This is the first time that WGS has been used to study the epidemiology of AFB. The results show that the technique is very powerful for high-resolution tracing of AFB-outbreaks.