Mouth Breathing Children Research Articles

Comparison of infrared thermography of the face between mouth-breathing and nasal-breathing children.

To compare the temperature of thermoanatomic points and areas of the upper and lower lips between mouth-breathing and nasal-breathing children. This cross-sectional observational study had a sample of 30 nasal-breathing and 30 mouth-breathing children aged 4 to 11 years. One front-view, one left-view, and one right-view infrared thermogram of the face were acquired from each participant. A total of 14 thermoanatomic points plus the upper lip and lower lip areas were marked on the front-view thermograms, while on the side-view thermograms, six thermoanatomic points were marked. The research also calculated the difference between the temperature of the upper and lower lip areas (∆T area) and between the temperature of the points on the upper and lower lips (∆T points). The normalized mean temperatures of points and areas and temperature differences were compared between groups with the t-test and Mann-Whitney test. The temperature of the thermoanatomic points closest to the lip (nasolabial, Labial Commissure, and lower labial), areas of the lips, and external acoustic meatus was lower in mouth breathers than in nasal breathers, which did not happen for most other points. ∆T area and ∆T points were not different between the groups. Thermography is a promising complementary diagnostic tool, since showed mouth-breathing children had lower temperatures in the region of the lips than nasal breathers.

Assessment of photodynamic therapy with annatto and led for the treatment of halitosis in mouth-breathing children: Randomized controlled clinical trial.

To assess the effectiveness of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) employing an annatto-based (20%) dye combined with blue LED for the treatment of halitosis in mouth-breathing children. Fifty-two children six to twelve years of age with diagnoses of mouth breathing and halitosis (score of ≥ 3 on portable breath meter) Breath Alert™ (Tanita Corporation®-Japan), were randomly allocated to two groups (n = 26). Group 1: brushing, dental floss and aPDT applied to middle third of the dorsum of the tongue. Group 2: brushing, dental floss and tongue scraper. Breath meter results before, immediately after treatment as well as seven and 30 days after treatment were compared. The hypothesis of normality in the data was discarded by the Shapiro-Wilk test (p < 0.05) and for statistical analysis the Wilcoxon and Mann-Whitney tests were used. A significant difference was found between the pre-treatment reading and all other readings (p < 0.05) in both groups, suggesting the effectiveness of the proposed treatments. No significant difference was found between the post-treatment reading and two follow-up readings, suggesting the maintenance of the effect of treatment over time (p > 0.05). However, significant differences were found between groups for all post-treatment assessments (p < 0.0001 for all comparisons), indicating greater effectiveness with aPDT. No association was found between the initial reading and the presence of coated tongue. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy using annatto and blue LED proved to be a viable therapeutic option for the treatment of halitosis in mouth-breathing children.

Differential impact of chronic intermittent hypoxia and stress changes on condylar development

ObjectivesThis study aimed to determine the effects of chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) and stress change (SC) on the development of the condyle in mouth breathing rats. DesignA total of 120 4-week-old rats were randomly assigned to one of five groups. The control (Ctrl) group was the blank control and the intermittent nasal obstruction (INO) group was the positive control. Mild CIH (mCIH) and severe CIH (sCIH) groups were developed by adjusting environmental oxygen concentration and monitoring real-time blood oxygen saturation (SpO2). The SC group was developed using INO, increased environmental oxygen concentration, and real-time SpO2 monitoring. Six rats from each group were sacrificed for analysis at 0, 1, 2, or 4 weeks. ResultsSimilar to the INO group, condyle and mandibular body development in the sCIH group, but not in the mCIH group, was significantly inhibited compared with the Ctrl group. The SC group had inhibited development of the condyle, especially of the posterior zone, but had minimal impact on the growth of the mandible. ConclusionThe inhibitory effects of CIH on the development of the condyle and mandibular body were SpO2-dose-dependent. When SC occurred, inhibited development was observed in the posterior zone of condyle but not the whole mandible. These findings provide important insights for targeted interventions that address the consequences of mouth breathing in children.

Association of clinical indicators in TMJ, craniofacial, occlusal, and upper airway changes with symptoms of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea and mouth-breathing

ABSTRACT Objective To assess the association between self-reported symptoms of pediatric OSA and clinical signs in MB children. Methods Seventy-three MB children aged 7–14 years answered an interview questionnaire on OSA symptoms in childhood, focusing on chewing, nasal, and sleep disturbances. MB children were checked for changes on the craniofacial, occlusion, TMJ, upper airway, and body posture by a multi-disciplinary team, consisting of medical residents, dental, and psychology postgraduate students. Multiple logistic regression analysis verified the association between clinical signs and self-reported symptoms. Results Reported symptoms of chewing disturbance as TMD noise, muscle pain, and morning headache were significantly associated with the presence of lip incompetence and Class II malocclusion. Sleep disturbances as snoring, waking up at night, daytime sleepiness, and sleeping with the mouth open were significantly associated with the presence of hypertrophic tonsils and obstructive Mallampati score. Conclusion Symptoms of pediatric OSA were found in mouth-breathing children, which should be carefully investigated in order to prevent OSA in the future.

Assessment of the relationship between oral health and adenoid hypertrophy in children aged 8 to 15 years

Background: The oral health of children is adversely affected by mouth breathing. One of the main reasons for mouth breathing in children is adenoid hypertrophy. Consequently, this study aimed to assess the relationship between oral health and adenoid hypertrophy among children aged 8–15 years in the city of Babol. Methods: This case-control study was conducted on 100 children. The case group included 50 children with adenoid hypertrophy. An Ear, Nose, and Throat (ENT) specialist examined the children clinically and referred them to the oral and maxillofacial radiology clinic. The study control group included 50 healthy children. To assess the size of the adenoidal tissues and the dimensions of the upper airways, we assessed the linear cephalometric measurement Ptm-ad2 . The evaluations consisted of the decayed, missing, and filled teeth (DMFT and dmft for permanent and primary teeth, respectively) index, mean periodontal pocket depth, plaque index (PI), and papillary marginal attached (PMA) index. Results: Fifty samples had adenoid hypertrophy. The prevalence of dental caries was significantly higher in children with adenoid hypertrophy compared to healthy children (DMFT was 4.10±2.09 and 2.06±0.97, and dmft was 3.52±3.34 and 1.48±1.24, in the case and control groups, respectively). Furthermore, the periodontal indices of the case group were significantly greater than those of the control group (periodontal pocket depth was 2.93±0.35 and 1.98±0.23, PI was 2.73±0.26 and 1.13±0.29, and the PMA index was 5.71±0.82 and 2.55±0.48, in the case and control groups, respectively). Conclusion: In the case group, there was a statistically higher prevalence of dental caries and gingival inflammation than in the control group. Therefore, periodical dental visits and preventive dental procedures are recommended for children with adenoid hypertrophy.

Mouth breathing reduces oral function in adolescence

Although humans breathe naturally through the nostrils, mouth breathing in children has recently gathered attention. In this study, we hypothesized that tongue function and its related maxillofacial morphology would affect breathing in adolescence. To verify this hypothesis, we examined the association between breathing patterns, including mouth and nasal breathing; oral functions, including tongue motor function; and craniofacial morphology during adolescence, which has not been investigated till date. C3-H, which indicates the anteroposterior position of the hyoid bone in relation to the third cervical vertebra, was significantly smaller in mouth-breathers than in nasal-breathers. Lip-closing force, tongue pressure, and masticatory efficiency were lower in the order of nasal-breathers, oronasal-breathers, and mouth-breathers, and the values for mouth-breathers were significantly lower than those for nasal-breathers. Tongue pressure alone was identified as a significant independent variable, with an odds ratio of 1.063 (95% confidence interval, 1.006–1.123; p < 0.05). Our results indicate a relationship between mouth breathing and the lip-closing force, tongue pressure, and masticatory efficiency, as well as the significance of tongue pressure on mouth breathing in adolescents. The findings highlight the importance of clarifying the pathophysiology of mouth breathing and its underlying causes.

Validity-Reliability Test of Indonesian-translated MBD-MBS questionnaire as screening method for mouth breathers

Introduction Mouth breathing, the process of air entry from the mouth to the lungs without passing through the nose, is an abnormal behaviour that may imply the presence of a comorbidity. Mouth breathing in children, teenagers, and adults leads to numerous pathological consequences, especially in children. There are several methods available to diagnose mouth breathing, one of them being the provision of questionnaires, however, there is yet any mouth breathing questionnaire that has been translated into Indonesian. Therefore, this research aims to translate the MBD-MBS questionnaire in Indonesian, and conduct a validity and reliability test for the translated questionnaire. Hence, this translated questionnaire may be used as a tool to diagnose the presence of mouth breathing. Methods This cross-sectional study was conducted to 33 parents of children in day-cares or preschools in Bandung city that fulfilled the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Translation of the questionnaire was conducted by a sworn translator after permission was granted by the original author through email. The questionnaire was then distributed to the subjects after being given consent. Afterwards, the validity and reliability test were then conducted using Spearman and Cronbach-α formulas respectively. Results All six questions in the Indonesian translated MBD-MBS questionnaire is validated (rcount &gt; rtable, which is 0.355) and reliable (Cronbach’s Alpha 0.643 &gt; 0.6). Conclusion Based on both validity and reliability tests, all questions in the Indonesian-translated MBD-MBS questionnaire are considered valid and reliable. Hence, this questionnaire is suitable to be utilized for further studies about mouth breathing.

Anomaly detection in sleep: detecting mouth breathing in children

Identifying mouth breathing during sleep in a reliable, non-invasive way is challenging and currently not included in sleep studies. However, it has a high clinical relevance in pediatrics, as it can negatively impact the physical and mental health of children. Since mouth breathing is an anomalous condition in the general population with only 2% prevalence in our data set, we are facing an anomaly detection problem. This type of human medical data is commonly approached with deep learning methods. However, applying multiple supervised and unsupervised machine learning methods to this anomaly detection problem showed that classic machine learning methods should also be taken into account. This paper compared deep learning and classic machine learning methods on respiratory data during sleep using a leave-one-out cross validation. This way we observed the uncertainty of the models and their performance across participants with varying signal quality and prevalence of mouth breathing. The main contribution is identifying the model with the highest clinical relevance to facilitate the diagnosis of chronic mouth breathing, which may allow more affected children to receive appropriate treatment.

Influence of Breathing Modes and Facial Growth Patterns on Electromyographic Fatigue of Masticatory Muscles in Children.

Introduction Changes in breathing patterns affect the harmonious development of the structures of the craniofacial system, leading to changes in posture, occlusion, and facial growth patterns. However, little is known about how these changes influence the muscle contraction patterns, either at rest or while functioning, and either in a normal or unbalanced condition. Objective To study the masseter and anterior temporal muscles fatigue during mastication in nasal- and mouth-breathing children, also considering their facial growth patterns. Methods: A total of 70 children aged 6 to 12 years old who met the study criteria were assessed. Speech-language-hearing, otorhinolaryngologic, and cephalometric assessments were performed to divide them into groups. In the electromyographic assessment, the children were asked to chew gum following a metronome until they felt fatigued. The median frequency of the muscles was analyzed at 15, 30, 45, and 60 seconds of mastication. The reported time of fatigue perception was recorded. The data were analyzed with analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Kruskal-Wallis and the Mann-Whitney U tests. Results There were no median frequency decrease patterns nor differences in the myoelectric manifestations and reported time of fatigue between the groups. Conclusion The masticatory muscles did not reveal fatigue in the electromyographic analysis; however, the fatigue time was reported, despite the absence of physiological fatigue. The breathing mode, the facial growth pattern, and the association between them did not interfere with the behavior of the median frequency of the electromyographic signal and the fatigue time perception.

Effect of maxillary expansion combined with orofacial myofunctional therapy on the position of the tongue of children with mouth breathing

Objective:This study aimed to investigate the change of the position of the tongue before and after combined treatment of maxillary expansion and orofacial myofunctional therapy in children with mouth-breathing and skeletal class Ⅱmalocclusion. Methods:A total of 30 children with skeletal class Ⅱ malocclusion and unobstructed upper airway were selected. The 30 children were divided into mouth-breathing group（n=15） and nasal-breathing group（n=15） and CBCT was taken. The images were measured by Invivo5 software. The measurement results of the tongue position of the two groups were analyzed by independent samples t-test. 15 mouth-breathing children with skeletal class Ⅱ malocclusion were selected for maxillary expansion and orofacial myofunctional therapy. CBCT was taken before and after treatment, the measurements were analyzed by paired sample t test with SPSS 27.0 software package. Results:The measurement of the tongue position of the mouth-breathing and nasal-breathing groups were compared, the differences were statistically significant（P<0.05）. The measurement of the tongue position showed significant difference after the combined treatment of maxillary expansion and orofacial myofunctional therapy in children with mouth-breathing and skeletal class Ⅱmalocclusion（P<0.05）. Conclusion:Skeletal class Ⅱ malocclusion children with mouth-breathing have low tongue posture. The combined treatment of maxillary expansion and orofacial myofunctional therapy can change the position of the tongue.

Rapid maxillary expansion and nasal patency in mouth breathing children with maxillary atresia due to or not due to allergic rhinitis.

To evaluate the effects of rapid maxillary expansion (RME) on nasal patency in mouth breathing (MB) children with maxillary atresia due to or not due to allergic rhinitis (AR) associated with asthma. Fifty-three MB children/adolescents (aged 7-14 years) with mixed or permanent dentition and maxillary atresia participated, with or without unilateral or bilateral crossbite. They formed the groups: RAD (AR + asthma; clinical treatment, RME); RAC (AR + asthma; clinical treatment, no RME); and D (mouth breathers; RME only). RAD and RAC patients received topical nasal corticosteroid and/or systemic H1 antihistamine (continuous use) and environmental exposure control. All were evaluated before RME (T1) and 6 months after (T2) with the CARATkids score, acoustic rhinometry, and nasal cavity computed tomography (CT). Patients RAD and D underwent RME (Hyrax® orthopedic appliance). A significant reduction in the CARATkids score occurred in the RAD (-4.06; p < 0.05), similarly when patient and parent/guardian scores were evaluated (-3.28 and -3.16, respectively). Acoustic rhinometry (V5) showed increased nasal volume in all groups, significantly higher in RAD patients than in RAC and D (0.99 × 0.71 × 0.69 cm3, respectively). CT of the nasal cavity documented increased volume in all three groups, with no significant differences between them. In MB patients with AR, asthma, and maxillary atresia, RME increased nasal cavity volume and improved respiratory symptoms. However, it should not be used as the only treatment for managing patients with respiratory allergies.

Secondary analysis of airway obstruction in children with adenoid hypertrophy: Association with jaw size and position

Rising information on the potential of the environment to influence phenotypical expression invited revisiting prior data on the effect of airway obstruction on jaw size, not only position. AimEvaluate the jaw interactions in response to graded airway obstruction and their effect on jaw size. Methods200 consecutively examined mouth-breathing children (age: 6.00 ± 2.62years) were referred by the pediatric otorhinolaryngologist for lateral cephalometric assessment of adenoid hypertrophy. Cephalometric measurements included maxillary and mandibular lengths, inclinations of palatal and mandibular planes and as airway measurement, the shortest distance from soft palate to adenoid (AD). Three severity groups were categorized on airway clearance level: AD1: >6mm, AD2: 2-6 mm, AD3: ≤2mm. All parameters were compared among the groups and to control databases. Statistics included one-way analysis of variance for group differences, linear and multiple regressions for associations and prediction models. ResultsAge was statistically significantly different (p < 0.001) among groups (AD1: 7.72 ± 3.02years; AD2: 5.89 ± 2.42years; AD3: 5.13 ± 2.21years). Cephalometric measurements in AD1 and AD2 were closest to normative data over time; the most severe AD3 diverged from these data. Variation in AD was accounted for by the combination of age and either mandibular length Co-Gn (59.4%) or maxillary length ANS-PNS (43.4%). Predictors of Co-Gn included the combination of ANS-PNS and AD (64.8%), and that of age, AD and palatal plane cant (62.4%). ConclusionThe results suggest that reduced nasopharyngeal clearance affects maxillary and mandibular size, the latter directly influenced by the maxillary changes.

Ineffectiveness of watchful waiting on mouth breathing in children with obstructive sleep apnea

ABSTRACT Objective To investigate the effectiveness of watchful waiting on mouth breathing in children with OSA. Methods Children in the Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial (CHAT) dataset were divided into two groups according to the treatment they received. One question in the OSA-18 Quality-of-Life Survey was chosen to evaluate the severity of mouth breathing. Results In total, 392 children (adenotonsillectomy group, n = 197 and watchful waiting group, n = 195) were enrolled in the study. There was no significant correlation between the Apnea-Hypopnea Index (AHI) and the severity of mouth breathing, . In watchful waiting group, there is no statistically significant difference of mouth breathing score (p = .555) between baseline and followup. Conclusions The watchful waiting of mouth breathing in children with less severe OSA is ineffective. More caution should be taken to choose watchful waiting for children with mild OSA but severe mouth breathing.

Mouth breathing in children

Mouth breathing in children

Nasal patency in mouth breathing children

RESUMO Vários estudos mostram a importância da avaliação quantitativa na patência nasal e do estado funcional das vias aéreas superiores para fornecer informações clínicas e diagnósticas em indivíduos respiradores orais, as quais são de grande interesse para a fonoaudiologia. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito da irrigação de solução salina nasal nas vias aéreas superiores através da aeração nasal e rinomanometria anterior ativa em crianças respiradoras orais. Estudo de série de oito casos, realizado em crianças com idades entre 7 e 10 anos, com diagnóstico clínico otorrinolaringológico de respiração oral. O estudo consistiu em três etapas: avaliação inicial; intervenção e avaliação final. Foram aplicados os questionários do Índice de Identificação dos Sinais e Sintomas da Respiração Oral e qualidade de vida específica para doenças em pacientes pediátricos com queixas sinonasais. Realizaram-se as avaliações da aeração nasal e o exame da rinomanometria anterior ativa. A intervenção foi realizada por meio da irrigação de solução salina nasal com 10 ml. Em seguida, os pacientes foram reavaliados pela avaliação da aeração nasal e rinomanometria, para comparar os resultados. Em relação à avaliação da aeração nasal e rinomanometria, das 16 medidas comparativas entre pré e pós-irrigação nasal, constataram-se mudanças significativas na aeração nasal e na resistência nasal. A irrigação nasal resultou em melhora nas medidas da aeração nasal, enquanto para o fluxo nasal da rinomanometria, as medidas permaneceram inalteradas entre pré e pós-irrigação nasal.

Assessment of changes in Streptococcus pyogenes levels using N-acetylgalactosamine-6-sulfatase marker and pharyngeal airway space with appliance therapy in mouth breathers - An ELISA-based study.

The frequency of adenotonsillar hypertrophy in mouth-breathing children when compared to the average found in the general population is considered to be higher. Mouth breathing is considered as one of the causative factors for tonsillitis in children. Through continuous irritation on tonsillar wall, tonsils swell up and inflammation develops. The purpose of the study is to evaluate Streptococcus pyogenes count using colony-forming units (CFUs) and N-acetylgalactosamine-6-sulfatase side chain marker on ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay) in mouth breathers and to establish its correlation with pharyngeal airway space pre- and post-oral screen appliance therapy. A total number of 24 (n) mouth breathers aged between 5 and 12 years were included in the study and given oral screen appliance therapy. The subjects were evaluated for the various parameters before the delivery of a habit-breaking appliance and then reevaluated for the same parameters (presence of S. pyogenes and its counts, size of tonsils, and pharyngeal airway space dimensions) after 6 months of appliance usage. A statistically significant difference was seen in levels of S. pyogenes using ELISA and CFUs. Furthermore, statistically significant difference was observed in Friedman tonsil scoring and pharyngeal airway space and pre- and post-oral screen appliance therapy. Oral screen appliance therapy reduced the frequency of occurrence of tonsillitis in mouth breathers by decreasing the counts of S. pyogenes bacteria. Upper and lower pharyngeal airway space dimensions were increased after 6 months of appliance therapy in mouth breathers.

Advantages of Interceptive Orthodontic Treatment; Rapid Maxillary Expansion in Children with Malocclusion Resulting from Mouth Breathing Habits

Background: One of the causes of malocclusion in developing children is the practice of mouth breathing. Morphological disturbances may occur during the growth phase in children with chronic mouth breathing. This resulting in the unfavorable development of dentofacial and craniofacial complexes. Mouth breathing in children as a condition has come to the attention of health care professionals. Malocclusion incidence will be decreased and eventually eliminated with the early identification and treatment of these poor oral habits. Purpose: The study determines the benefits of interceptive orthodontics Rapid Maxillary Expansion treatment in children with malocclusion caused by the habit of mouth breathing. Methods: Data were gathered by searching and analyzing literature from electronic databases PubMed, Wiley, and Science Direct in the 2012 and 2022 publication period. Interceptive orthodontics; rapid maxillary expansion; mouth breathing; malocclusion and children keywords were used to conduct the systematic search of the data. Results: One of the most frequent malocclusions is caused by the practice of mouth breathing which narrows the maxillary arch. Some of the characteristic features are decreased distance between nasal cavity’s lateral walls, bilateral or unilateral posterior crossbite, crowding of the anterior teeth, and deep palate.

A Study of the Facial Soft Tissue Morphology in Nasal- and Mouth-Breathing Patients

ObjectivesThis study aimed to investigate the 3-dimensional (3D) facial morphology of children with skeletal Class II structure with different breathing patterns. MethodsThe 3dMDFace system (3dMD Inc.) was used to obtain 3D facial images. A total of 65 patients aged 10 to 12 years with skeletal Class II malocclusion (A point-Nasion-B point angle >5°) were grouped by sex into nasal-breathing (NB) and mouth-breathing (MB) participants. A total of 19 measurements, including linear distances, angles, and ratios, were measured. The measurements were compared using independent sample t test and Mann–Whitney U test. Factor analysis and logistic regression were used to test the correlation between facial morphology and different breathing patterns. ResultsFor male children, the lower lip was longer in the MB group than in the NB group (P < .05). For female children, compared to NB, MB patients had a narrower mandibular width (P < .05), a smaller ratio of mandibular width to face height (MB: 0.99 ± 0.08 vs NB: 1.04 ± 0.09; P < .05), and a larger ratio of lower lip height to lip width (MB: 1.24 ± 0.10 vs NB: 1.19 ± 0.16; P < .05). In both male and female children, MB participants had a more convex nasolabial angle (P < .05) and an increased ratio of the lower part of the face to the upper facial height (male MB: 1.61 ± 0.17 vs male NB: 1.50 ± 0.12; female MB: 1.52 ± 0.10 vs female NB: 1.50 ± 0.20; P < .05). The logistic regression test showed no significant correlation between facial morphology and breathing patterns. ConclusionsIn participants with skeletal Class II pattern, MB children compared with NB children showed different facial morphology in the same sex group. The children with MB showed a more protruded upper lip and increased lower facial height, accounting for a larger proportion of the facial height. However, no significant correlation was found between facial morphology and breathing pattern. Only correlative trends were found.

The impact of mouth breathing on dentofacial development: A concise review.

Mouth breathing is one of the most common deleterious oral habits in children. It often results from upper airway obstruction, making the air enter completely or partially through oral cavity. In addition to nasal obstruction caused by various kinds of nasal diseases, the pathological hypertrophy of adenoids and/or tonsils is often the main etiologic factor of mouth breathing in children. Uncorrected mouth breathing can result in abnormal dental and maxillofacial development and affect the health of dentofacial system. Mouth breathers may present various types of growth patterns and malocclusion, depending on the exact etiology of mouth breathing. Furthermore, breathing through the oral cavity can negatively affect oral health, increasing the risk of caries and periodontal diseases. This review aims to provide a summary of recent publications with regard to the impact of mouth breathing on dentofacial development, describe their consistencies and differences, and briefly discuss potential reasons behind inconsistent findings.

Three-dimensional evaluation of pharyngeal airway and maxillary arch in mouth and nasal breathing children with skeletal Class I and II

ObjectiveThis study aimed to investigate whether the subjects with mouth breathing (MB) or nasal breathing (NB) with different sagittal skeletal patterns showed different maxillary arch and pharyngeal airway characteristics.MethodsCone-beam computed tomography scans from 70 children aged 10 to 12 years with sagittal skeletal Classes I and II were used to measure the pharyngeal airway, maxillary width, palatal area, and height. The independent t-test and the Mann–Whitney U test were used for the intragroup analysis of pharyngeal airway and maxillary arch parameters.ResultsIn the Skeletal Class I group, nasopharyngeal airway volume (P < 0.01), oropharyngeal airway volume (OPV), and total pharyngeal airway volume (TPV) (all P < 0.001) were significantly greater in subjects with NB than in those with MB. Furthermore, intermolar width, maxillary width at the molars, intercanine width, maxillary width at the canines, and palatal area were significantly larger in subjects with NB than in those with MB (all P < 0.001). In the Skeletal Class II group, OPV, TPV (both P < 0.05) were significantly greater in subjects with NB than in those with MB. No significant differences in pharyngeal airway parameters in the MB group between subjects with Skeletal Class I and those with Skeletal Class II.ConclusionRegardless of sagittal Skeletal Class I or II, the pharyngeal airway and maxillary arch in children with MB differ from those with NB. However, the pharyngeal airway was not significantly different between Skeletal Class I and II in children with MB.