Mouse Distal Convoluted Tubule Research Articles

The Hydrogen-Coupled Oligopeptide Membrane Cotransporter Pept2 is SUMOylated in Kidney Distal Convoluted Tubule Cells.

Protein post-translational modification by the Small Ubiquitin-like MOdifier (SUMO) on lysine residues is a reversible process highly important for transcription and protein stability. In the kidney, SUMOylation appears to be important for the cellular response to aldosterone. Therefore, in this study, we generated a SUMOylation profile of the aldosterone-sensitive kidney distal convoluted tubule (DCT) as a basis for understanding SUMOylation events in this cell type. Using mass spectrometry-based proteomics, 1037 SUMO1 and 552 SUMO2 sites, corresponding to 546 SUMO1 and 356 SUMO2 proteins, were identified from a modified mouse kidney DCT cell line (mpkDCT). SUMOylation of the renal hydrogen-coupled oligopeptide and drug co-transporter (Pept2) at one site (K139) was found to be highly regulated by aldosterone. Using immunolabelling of mouse kidney sections Pept2 was localized to DCT cells in vivo. Aldosterone stimulation of mpkDCT cell lines expressing wild-type Pept2 or mutant K139R-Pept2, post-transcriptionally increased Pept2 expression up to four-fold. Aldosterone decreased wild-type Pept2 abundance in the apical membrane domain of mpkDCT cells, but this response was absent in K139R-Pept2 expressing cells. In summary, we have generated a SUMOylation landscape of the mouse DCT and determined that SUMOylation plays an important role in the physiological regulation of Pept2 trafficking by aldosterone.

Activation of the kidney sodium chloride cotransporter by the β2-adrenergic receptor agonist salbutamol increases blood pressure

The thiazide-sensitive sodium-chloride-cotransporter (NCC) in the kidney distal convoluted tubule (DCT) plays an essential role in sodium and potassium homeostasis. Here, we demonstrate that NCC activity is increased by the β2-adrenoceptor agonist salbutamol, a drug prevalently used to treat asthma. Relative to β1-adrenergic receptors, the β2-adrenergic receptors were greatly enriched in mouse DCT cells. In mice, administration of salbutamol increased NCC phosphorylation (indicating increased activity) within 30 minutes but also caused hypokalemia, which also increases NCC phosphorylation. In exvivo kidney slices and isolated tubules, salbutamol increased NCC phosphorylation in the pharmacologically relevant range of 0.01-10 μM, an effect observed after 15 minutes and maintained at 60 minutes. Inhibition of the inwardly rectifying potassium channel (Kir) 4.1 or the downstream with-no-lysine kinases (WNKs) and STE20/SPS1-related proline alanine-rich kinase (SPAK) pathway greatly attenuated, but did not prevent, salbutamol-induced NCC phosphorylation. Salbutamol increased cAMP in tubules, kidney slices and mpkDCT cells (model of DCT). Phosphoproteomics indicated that protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) was a key upstream regulator of salbutamol effects. A role for PP1 and the PP1 inhibitor 1 (I1) was confirmed in tubules using inhibitors of PP1 or kidney slices from I1 knockout mice. On normal and high salt diets, salbutamol infusion increased systolic blood pressure, but this increase was normalized by thiazide suggesting a role for NCC. Thus, β2-adrenergic receptor signaling modulates NCC activity via I1/PP1 and WNK-dependent pathways, and chronic salbutamol administration may be a risk factor for hypertension.

An in vivo protein landscape of the mouse DCT during high dietary K+ or low dietary Na+ intake.

The hormone aldosterone is essential for maintaining K+ and Na+ balance and controlling blood pressure. Aldosterone has different effects if it is secreted due to hypovolemia or hyperkalemia. The kidney distal convoluted tubule (DCT) is believed to play a central role in mediating the differential responses to aldosterone. To determine the alterations in the DCT that may be responsible for these effects, male mice with green fluorescent protein expression specifically in the DCT were maintained on diets containing low NaCl (hypovolemic state) or high potassium citrate (hyperkalemic state) for 4 days, and DCT cells were isolated using fluorescence-activated cell sorting. This pure population of DCT cells was subjected to analysis by liquid chromatography-coupled tandem mass spectrometry. Over 3,000 proteins were identified in the DCT, creating the first proteome of the mouse DCT. Of the identified proteins, 210 proteins were altered in abundance following a low-NaCl diet and 625 proteins following the high-K+ diet. Many of these changes were not detectable by analyzing whole kidney samples from the same animals. When comparing responses to high-K+ versus low-Na+ diets, protein translation, chaperone-mediated protein folding, and protein ubiquitylation were likely to be significantly altered in the DCT subsequent to a high-K+ diet. In conclusion, this study defines an in vivo protein landscape of the DCT in male mice following either a low-NaCl or a high-K+ diet and acts as an essential resource for the kidney research community.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The mineralocorticoid aldosterone, essential for maintaining body K+ and Na+ balance, has different effects if secreted due to hypovolemia or hyperkalemia. Here, we used proteomics to profile kidney distal convoluted tubule (DCT) cells isolated by a novel FACS approach from mice fed a low-Na+ diet (mimicking hypovolemia) or a high-K+ diet (mimicking hyperkalemia). The study provides the first in-depth proteome of the mouse DCT and insights into how it is physiologically regulated.

Modeling Distal Convoluted Tubule (Patho)Physiology: An Overview of Past Developments and an Outlook Toward the Future.

The kidneys are essential for maintaining electrolyte homeostasis. Blood electrolyte composition is controlled by active reabsorption and secretion processes in dedicated segments of the kidney tubule. Specifically, the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and connecting tubule are important for regulating the final excretion of sodium, magnesium, and calcium. Studies unravelling the specific function of these segments have greatly improved our understanding of DCT (patho)physiology. Over the years, experimental models used to study the DCT have changed and the field has advanced from early dissection studies with rats and rabbits to the use of various transgenic mouse models. Developments in dissection techniques and cell culture methods have resulted in immortalized mouse DCT cell lines and made it possible to specifically obtain DCT fragments for ex vivo studies. However, we still do not fully understand the complex (patho)physiology of this segment and there is need for advanced human DCT models. Recently, kidney organoids and tubuloids have emerged as new complex cell models that provide excellent opportunities for physiological studies, disease modeling, drug discovery, and even personalized medicine in the future. This review presents an overview of cell models used to study the DCT and provides an outlook on kidney organoids and tubuloids as model for DCT (patho)physiology. Impact statement This study provides a detailed overview of past and future developments on cell models used to study kidney (patho)physiology and specifically the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) segment. Hereby, we highlight the need for an advanced human cell model of this segment and summarize recent advances in the field of kidney organoids and tubuloids with a focus on DCT properties. The findings reported in this review are significant for future developments toward an advanced human model of the DCT that will help to increase our understanding of DCT (patho)physiology.

Deletion of the transcription factor Prox-1 specifically in the renal distal convoluted tubule causes hypomagnesemia via reduced expression of TRPM6 and NCC

The renal distal convoluted tubule (DCT) is critical for the fine-tuning of urinary ion excretion and the control of blood pressure. Ion transport along the DCT is tightly controlled by posttranscriptional mechanisms including a complex interplay of kinases, phosphatases, and ubiquitin ligases. Previous work identified the transcription factor Prox-1 as a gene significantly enriched in the DCT of adult mice. To test if Prox-1 contributes to the transcriptional regulation of DCT function and structure, we developed a novel mouse model (NCCcre:Prox-1flox/flox) for an inducible deletion of Prox-1 specifically in the DCT. The deletion of Prox-1 had no obvious impact on DCT structure and growth independent whether the deletion was achieved in newborn or adult mice. Furthermore, DCT-specific Prox-1 deficiency did not alter DCT-proliferation in response to loop diuretic treatment. Likewise, the DCT-specific deletion of Prox-1 did not cause other gross phenotypic abnormalities. Body weight, urinary volume, Na+ and K+ excretion as well as plasma Na+, K+, and aldosterone levels were similar in Prox-1DCTKO and Prox-1DCTCtrl mice. However, Prox-1DCTKO mice exhibited a significant hypomagnesemia with a profound downregulation of the DCT-specific apical Mg2+ channel TRPM6 and the NaCl cotransporter (NCC) at both mRNA and protein levels. The expression of other proteins involved in distal tubule Mg2+ and Na+ handling was not affected. Thus, Prox-1 is a DCT-enriched transcription factor that does not control DCT growth but contributes to the molecular control of DCT-dependent Mg2+ homeostasis in the adult kidney.

Epoxyeicosatrienoic acid metabolites inhibit Kir4.1/Kir5.1 in the distal convoluted tubule.

Cytochrome P-450 (Cyp) epoxygenase-dependent metabolites of arachidonic acid (AA) have been shown to inhibit renal Na+ transport, and inhibition of Cyp-epoxygenase is associated with salt-sensitive hypertension. We used the patch-clamp technique to examine whether Cyp-epoxygenase-dependent AA metabolites inhibited the basolateral 40-pS K+ channel (Kir4.1/Kir5.1) in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT). Application of AA inhibited the basolateral 40-pS K+ channel in the DCT. The inhibitory effect of AA on the 40-pS K+ channel was specific because neither linoleic nor oleic acid was able to mimic the effect of AA on the K+ channel. Inhibition of Cyp-monooxygenase with N-methylsulfonyl-12,12-dibromododec-11-enamide or inhibition of cyclooxygenase with indomethacin failed to abolish the inhibitory effect of AA on the 40-pS K+ channel. However, the inhibition of Cyp-epoxygenase with N-methylsulfonyl-6-(propargyloxyphenyl)hexanamide abolished the effect of AA on the 40-pS K+ channel in the DCT. Moreover, addition of either 11,12-epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (EET) or 14,15-EET also inhibited the 40-pS K+ channel in the DCT. Whole cell recording demonstrated that application of AA decreased, whereas N-methylsulfonyl-6-(propargyloxyphenyl)hexanamide treatment increased, Ba2+-sensitive K+ currents in the DCT. Finally, application of 14,15-EET but not AA was able to inhibit the basolateral 40-pS K+ channel in the DCT of Cyp2c44-/- mice. We conclude that Cyp-epoxygenase-dependent AA metabolites inhibit the basolateral Kir4.1/Kir5.1 in the DCT and that Cyp2c44-epoxygenase plays a role in the regulation of the basolateral K+ channel in the mouse DCT.

Phosphorylated claudin-16 interacts with Trpv5 and regulates transcellular calcium transport in the kidney

Familial hypomagnesemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis (FHHNC) was previously considered to be a paracellular channelopathy caused by mutations in the claudin-16 and claudin-19 genes. Here, we provide evidence that a missense FHHNC mutation c.908C>G (p.T303R) in the claudin-16 gene interferes with the phosphorylation in the claudin-16 protein. The claudin-16 protein carrying phosphorylation at residue T303 is localized in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) but not in the thick ascending limb (TAL) of the mouse kidney. The phosphomimetic claudin-16 protein carrying the T303E mutation but not the wildtype claudin-16 or the T303R mutant protein increases the Trpv5 channel conductance and membrane abundance in human kidney cells. Phosphorylated claudin-16 and Trpv5 are colocalized in the luminal membrane of the mouse DCT tubule; phosphomimetic claudin-16 and Trpv5 interact in the yeast and mammalian cell membranes. Knockdown of claudin-16 gene expression in transgenic mouse kidney delocalizes Trpv5 from the luminal membrane in the DCT. Unlike wildtype claudin-16, phosphomimetic claudin-16 is delocalized from the tight junction but relocated to the apical membrane in renal epithelial cells because of diminished binding affinity to ZO-1. High-Ca2+ diet reduces the phosphorylation of claudin-16 protein at T303 in the DCT of mouse kidney via the PTH signaling cascade. Knockout of the PTH receptor, PTH1R, from the mouse kidney abrogates the claudin-16 phosphorylation at T303. Together, these results suggest a pathogenic mechanism for FHHNC involving transcellular Ca2+ pathway in the DCT and identify a molecular component in renal Ca2+ homeostasis under direct regulation of PTH.

Uromodulin is expressed in the distal convoluted tubule, where it is critical for regulation of the sodium chloride cotransporter NCC

Uromodulin, the most abundant protein in normal urine, is essentially produced by the cells lining the thick ascending limb. There it regulates the activity of the cotransporter NKCC2 and is involved in sodium chloride handling and blood pressure regulation. Conflicting reports suggested that uromodulin may also be expressed in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) where its role remains unknown. Using microdissection studies combined with fluorescent insitu hybridization and co-immunostaining analyses, we found a significant expression of uromodulin in mouse and human DCT at approximately 10% of thick ascending limb expression levels, but restricted to the early part of the DCT (DCT1). Genetic deletion of Umod in mouse was reflected by a major shift in NCC activity from the DCT1 to the downstream DCT2 segment, paralleled by a compensatory expansion of DCT2. By increasing the distal sodium chloride and calcium ion load with chronic furosemide administration, an intrinsic compensatory defect in the DCT from Umod-/- compared to wild type mice was found manifested as sodium wasting and hypercalciuria. In line, co-expression studies in HEK cells suggested a facilitating role for uromodulin in NCC phosphorylation, possibly via SPAK-OSR1 modulation. These experiments demonstrate a significant expression of uromodulin in the early part of mouse and human DCT. Thus, biosynthesis of uromodulin in the DCT1 is critical for its function, structure and plasticity, suggesting novel links between uromodulin, blood pressure control and risk of kidney stones.

The β‐adrenergic stimulation of the renal NaCl cotransporter is mediated via a cAMP‐dependent activation of protein phosphatase 1 inhibitor 1

Sympathetic β‐adrenergic activation of the thiazide‐sensitive NaCl cotransporter (NCC) in the renal distal convoluted tubule (DCT) was suggested to contribute to the development of salt‐sensitive hypertension. Previous studies demonstrated that β‐adrenergic agonists (e.g. norepinephrine and isoproterenol) increase cytoplasmic cAMP and the phosphorylation and hence the activity of NCC in the mouse DCT. Recently, we identified the endogenous inhibitor 1 (I1) of protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) as a DCT enriched gene product that controls NCC phosphorylation and blood pressure. As I1 is activated by cAMP‐dependent protein kinase A (PKA), we now tested the hypothesis that β‐adrenergic agonists inhibit PP1 via a cAMP/PKA‐dependent activation of I1 ultimately stimulating NCC phosphorylation. To test this hypothesis we performed experiments on MDCK cells stably transfected with NCC and on ex vivo preparations of kidneys from wildtype (WT) and I1‐knockout (I1‐KO) mice. The exposure of isolated DCTs to the cAMP‐elevating drugs forskolin and IBMX rapidly increased the phosphorylation of NCC via a protein kinase A (PKA)‐dependent pathway. The forskolin/IBMX‐induced phosphorylation of NCC was paralleled by I1 phosphorylation at its PKA‐consensus phosphorylation site (T35). Moreover, the forskolin/IBMX‐induced phosphorylation of NCC was diminished in kidney slices of from I1‐KO mice. The transgenic overexpression of a phosphomimetic I1 mutant (T35D) in kidneys of I1‐KO mice restored NCC phosphorylation, but made NCC resistant to forskolin/IBMX stimulation. Using an unbiased yeast‐two‐hybrid screen and co‐immunoprecipitation assays, we demonstrate that NCC and PP1 physically interact in transfected MDCK cells. Finally, the isoproterenol stimulated increase of NCC‐phosphorylation was impaired in I1‐KO mice as assessed in kidney slices and isolated‐perfused mouse kidneys. Remarkably, this occurred independent from any change in the phosphorylation of the kinases SPAK/OSR1. Thus, our data establish a complete signal transduction pathway by which cAMP increases NCC phosphorylation via a PKA‐dependent phosphorylation of I1 and subsequent inhibition of PP1. This pathway likely accounts for beta‐adrenergic NCC activation and hence may contribute to salt‐sensitive hypertension in patients with sympathetic hyperactivity.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Metabolic stress directs WNK kinases to aggresomes for pooling and degradation in the distal convoluted tubule of the kidney

ObjectiveRenal salt retention due to excessive function of the renal NaCl cotransporter (NCC) along the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) plays a central role in the pathogenesis of hypertension. The Western type diet with high salt and low potassium content (HS/LK) has been shown to increase NCC activity by stimulating its phosphorylation via a kinase cascade comprising with‐no‐lysine kinases (WNKs) and a Ste20‐related kinase (SPAK). WNKs and SPAK have been shown to accumulate in perinuclear aggregates in response to potassium depletion, but the functional significance of these aggregates remained obscure. These structures may in part reflect a degradative pathway but may serve pooling functions as well.MethodsMice received HS/LK or control diets for 10 days. WNK1‐transfected DCT cells were exposed to vehicle, hyperosmotic stress, or potassium depletion. WNK1, WNK4, SPAK, phospho‐S383 SPAK, and various autophagy markers were studied by immunofluorescence and immunoblotting. Electron microscopy was applied for ultrastructural analysis.ResultsHS/LK diet induced accumulation of WNKs and SPAK in the form of perinuclear protein aggregates within DCT cells. These aggregates were rare in DCT of mice treated with control diet and virtually absent after administration of high potassium diet. The autophagy marker ATG5 was present in the aggregates and the 20S proteasome signal was intensified adjacently, whereas standard lysosomal markers showed no significant association with the punctate WNK/SPAK signal. Ultrastructural analysis of DCT in kidneys of mice treated with HS/LK revealed abundant aggresomes adjacent to rough endoplasmic reticulum and clathrin‐coated vesicles. Evaluation of cultured DCT cells transfected with WNK1 or KS‐WNK1 revealed formation of similar aggresomes in response to potassium depletion, whereas hyperosmotic stress induced formation of autophagosomes. Pretreatment of cells with proteasome inhibitor MG‐132 or autophagy/lysosome inhibitor bafilomycin A1 prior to potassium depletion substantially augmented the size of WNK1‐containing aggresomes.ConclusionChallenging of DCT epithelium induces the formation of perinuclear aggresomes which pool the components of the kinase cascade controlling NCC activity. From there, WNKs and SPAK may either be degraded via proteasomes or lysosomes, or reintroduced into the signal chain.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Identification of adenylyl cyclase isoforms mediating parathyroid hormone- and calcitonin-stimulated cyclic AMP accumulation in distal tubule cells

BackgroundThe distal convoluted tubule (DCT) is an important nephron site for parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin regulation of urinary divalent cation excretion. These hormones exert their effects on the DCT in substantial part through activation of adenylyl cyclase (AC); however, it is unknown which AC isoforms are involved.MethodsTo examine this, two mouse DCT cell lines were studied: 209 and D1 cells. AC isoform mRNA expression was analyzed by real-time PCR. Cyclic AMP was measured using enzyme immunoassay.ResultsCalcitonin, but not PTH, stimulated cAMP accumulation in 209 cells, while PTH, but not calcitonin, increased cAMP content in D1 cells. Both cell types expressed AC3, AC4, AC6, AC7, and AC9 mRNA; in both cell types, AC6 mRNA was most abundant, followed by AC9, then AC3 and AC7, with relatively very small amounts of AC4 mRNA. Microdissected mouse DCT had a similar pattern of AC isoform mRNA expression although AC5 mRNA was detected. Individual siRNA knockdown of AC6 and AC9 reduced calcitonin-stimulated cAMP accumulation in 209 cells and PTH-induced cAMP levels in D1 cells. Knockdown of AC3 had no effect on hormonal augmentation of cAMP in either cell line. Surprisingly, knockdown of AC7 increased calcitonin-induced cAMP accumulation in 209 cells as well as PTH-stimulated cAMP content in D1 cells.ConclusionsTaken together, these findings indicate that AC6 and AC9 mediate calcitonin- and PTH-stimulated cAMP accumulation in DCT cells, while activation of AC7 may paradoxically reduce the stimulatory effects of PTH and calcitonin on cultured DCT cAMP levels.

Comparative transcriptomic analysis identifies evolutionarily conserved gene products in the vertebrate renal distal convoluted tubule.

Understanding the molecular basis of the complex regulatory networks controlling renal ion transports is of major physiological and clinical importance. In this study, we aimed to identify evolutionarily conserved critical players in the function of the renal distal convoluted tubule (DCT) by a comparative transcriptomic approach. We generated a transgenic zebrafish line with expression of the red fluorescent mCherry protein under the control of the zebrafish DCT-specific promoter of the thiazide-sensitive NaCl cotransporter (NCC). The mCherry expression was then used to isolate from the zebrafish mesonephric kidneys the distal late (DL) segments, the equivalent of the mammalian DCT, for subsequent RNA-seq analysis. We next compared this zebrafish DL transcriptome to the previously established mouse DCT transcriptome and identified a subset of gene products significantly enriched in both the teleost DL and the mammalian DCT, including SLCs and nuclear transcription factors. Surprisingly, several of the previously described regulators of NCC (e.g., SPAK, KLHL3, ppp1r1a) in the mouse were not found enriched in the zebrafish DL. Nevertheless, the zebrafish DL expressed enriched levels of related homologues. Functional knockdown of one of these genes, ppp1r1b, reduced the phosphorylation of NCC in the zebrafish pronephros, similar to what was seen previously in knockout mice for its homologue, Ppp1r1a. The present work is the first report on global gene expression profiling in a specific nephron portion of the zebrafish kidney, an increasingly used model system for kidney research. Our study suggests that comparative analysis of gene expression between phylogenetically distant species may be an effective approach to identify novel regulators of renal function.

Characterization of constitutive and acid-induced outwardly rectifying chloride currents in immortalized mouse distal tubular cells

Thiazides block Na+ reabsorption while enhancing Ca2+ reabsorption in the kidney. As previously demonstrated in immortalized mouse distal convoluted tubule (MDCT) cells, chlorothiazide application induced a robust plasma membrane hyperpolarization, which increased Ca2+ uptake. This essential thiazide-induced hyperpolarization was prevented by the Cl− channel inhibitor 5-Nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino) benzoic acid (NPPB), implicating NPPB-sensitive Cl− channels, however the nature of these Cl− channels has been rarely described in the literature. Here we show that MDCT cells express a dominant, outwardly rectifying Cl− current at extracellular pH7.4. This constitutive Cl− current was more permeable to larger anions (Eisenman sequence I; I−>Br−≥Cl−) and was substantially inhibited by >100mM [Ca2+]o, which distinguished it from ClC-K2/barttin. Moreover, the constitutive Cl− current was blocked by NPPB, along with other Cl− channel inhibitors (4,4′-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2′-disulfonate, DIDS; flufenamic acid, FFA). Subjecting the MDCT cells to an acidic extracellular solution (pH<5.5) induced a substantially larger outwardly rectifying NPPB-sensitive Cl− current. This acid-induced Cl− current was also anion permeable (I−>Br−>Cl−), but was distinguished from the constitutive Cl− current by its rectification characteristics, ion sensitivities, and response to FFA. In addition, we have identified similar outwardly rectifying and acid-sensitive currents in immortalized cells from the inner medullary collecting duct (mIMCD-3 cells). Expression of an acid-induced Cl− current would be particularly relevant in the acidic IMCD (pH<5.5). To our knowledge, the properties of these Cl− currents are unique and provide the mechanisms to account for the Cl− efflux previously speculated to be present in MDCT cells.

A Cysteine‐Rich Hydrophobic Motif in KS‐WNK1 Regulates WNK Body Formation

With‐No‐Lysine kinase 1 (WNK1) coordinates tubular NaCl and K+ transport through the dual action of two major isoforms: a ubiquitously expressed full‐length “Long” isoform with intact kinase activity (L‐WNK1), and an N‐terminally truncated kinase‐defective “Kidney Specific” isoform (KS‐WNK1) that is highly expressed in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT). These two isoforms are functionally different, presumably due to differences in their N‐termini, as their C‐termini are identical. In response to changes in dietary potassium, WNK signaling complexes concentrate in the DCT, forming discrete punctate foci of unknown function, which we call “WNK bodies”. The marked expression of KS‐WNK1 in DCT suggests that it may play role in the formation of these structures. We hypothesized that the unique N‐terminus of KS‐WNK1 is critical for WNK body formation in response to potassium stress. C‐terminal antibodies recognizing both L‐ and KS‐WNK1 recognized punctate structures in the DCT of mice maintained on either low or high potassium diets; surprisingly, WNK bodies were not present in mice on control diets. Mice exposed to low K diets developed subnuclear WNK bodies that were twice as abundant and larger than the subapical puncta that appeared in mice on high K diet. Since our WNK1 antibody recognizes both L‐ and KS‐WNK1, we moved to an in vitro system to determine whether L‐ or KS‐WNK1 is important for puncta formation. In cells, KS‐WNK1 collected in similar puncta, whereas L‐WNK1 was distributed diffusely throughout the cytoplasm. Live cell imaging and FRAP studies indicated that the puncta are mobile structures that slowly fill with eGFP‐tagged KS‐WNK1 protein and restrict KS‐WNK1 diffusion into the free cytosol. Mutagenesis studies revealed that KS‐WNK1 puncta formation is dependent on a cysteine‐rich hydrophobic motif harbored in its unique N‐terminus, as ablation of this motif shifted KS‐WNK1 diffusely. Immuno‐TEM and immunofluorescence confocal microscopy studies indicated that both the in vivo WNK bodies and in vitro KS‐WNK1 puncta are non‐membrane bound structures that co‐localize &gt;90% with the 60s core ribosomal exit tunnel protein L22, suggesting that these puncta are similar in nature. Though L22 colocalization was detected under both high and low K stress conditions, low K WNK bodies additionally contained SPAK and WNK4. Coupled with our observations regarding the differences in WNK body positioning and size with different dietary potassium maneuvers, these findings suggest that WNK bodies contain different proteins and have different roles when the DCT is challenged with low or high K stress. Thus, the formation of WNK bodies in the DCT may reflect distinct WNK‐dependent stress responses that are coordinated by KS‐WNK1.Support or Funding InformationR01DK098145, P30DK079307, T32DK061296

CD8+ T cells stimulate Na-Cl co-transporter NCC in distal convoluted tubules leading to salt-sensitive hypertension

Recent studies suggest a role for T lymphocytes in hypertension. However, whether T cells contribute to renal sodium retention and salt-sensitive hypertension is unknown. Here we demonstrate that T cells infiltrate into the kidney of salt-sensitive hypertensive animals. In particular, CD8+ T cells directly contact the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) in the kidneys of DOCA-salt mice and CD8+ T cell-injected mice, leading to up-regulation of the Na-Cl co-transporter NCC, p-NCC and the development of salt-sensitive hypertension. Co-culture with CD8+ T cells upregulates NCC in mouse DCT cells via ROS-induced activation of Src kinase, up-regulation of the K+ channel Kir4.1, and stimulation of the Cl− channel ClC-K. The last event increases chloride efflux, leading to compensatory chloride influx via NCC activation at the cost of increasing sodium retention. Collectively, these findings provide a mechanism for adaptive immunity involvement in the kidney defect in sodium handling and the pathogenesis of salt-sensitive hypertension.

Acid-Induced Chloride Current in Distal Convoluted Tubule

The distal convoluted tubule (DCT) of the kidney is responsible for the fine-tuning of urinary filtrate before excretion. The DCT is known to facilitate the movement of Na, K, Ca, Mg, and Cl via transporters and ion channels. Recent research has focussed on the functional activity of TRP channels in the DCT, with heavy emphasis on TRPM6/7 (Mg at neutral pH 7.4; Na at acidic pH) and TRPV5/6 (Ca). Several studies have suggested that these channels should give rise to large macroscopic currents in DCT cells. Therefore we undertook this study to determine the ionic species representing the dominant current in mouse DCT (MDCT) cells via whole-cell voltage-clamp electrophysiology. Using ionic permeation studies and analysis of reversal potential changes, our results unequivocally demonstrate that MDCT cells exhibit a significant Cl current under both neutral and acidic extracellular solutions. We further identified that this current is rapidly activating, differentiating it from the endogenous acid-induced anion current discovered in HEK293 cells. We noted that currents elicited under acidic pH were substantially larger than those at neutral pH, and thus hypothesized that extracellular acid induced a different, larger Cl current in MDCT cells. This was supported pharmacologically, where only the acid-induced Cl current was blocked by furosemide, a clinically prescribed loop-diuretic. To further understand the significance of a large acid-induced Cl current in the late nephron, we investigated inner medullary collecting duct (IMCD) cells as they represent the most acidic portion of the nephron. IMCD current was not only acid-induced, but shared an identical I-V relationship, pH sensitivity, and time-course of activation with the acid-induced induced Cl current discovered in MDCT cells. We thus conclude that the late nephron contains a large acid-induced Cl current that may play a significant role in anion reabsorption.

A Systems Level Analysis of Vasopressin-mediated Signaling Networks in Kidney Distal Convoluted Tubule Cells.

The kidney distal convoluted tubule (DCT) plays an essential role in maintaining body sodium balance and blood pressure. The major sodium reabsorption pathway in the DCT is the thiazide-sensitive NaCl cotransporter (NCC), whose functions can be modulated by the hormone vasopressin (VP) acting via uncharacterized signaling cascades. Here we use a systems biology approach centered on stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) based quantitative phosphoproteomics of cultured mouse DCT cells to map global changes in protein phosphorylation upon acute treatment with a VP type II receptor agonist 1-desamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin (dDAVP). 6330 unique proteins, containing 12333 different phosphorylation sites were identified. 185 sites were altered in abundance following dDAVP. Basophilic motifs were preferential targets for upregulated sites upon dDAVP stimulation, whereas proline-directed motifs were prominent for downregulated sites. Kinase prediction indicated that dDAVP increased AGC and CAMK kinase families’ activities and decreased activity of CDK and MAPK families. Network analysis implicated phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase or CAMKK dependent pathways in VP-mediated signaling; pharmacological inhibition of which significantly reduced dDAVP induced increases in phosphorylated NCC at an activating site. In conclusion, this study identifies unique VP signaling cascades in DCT cells that may be important for regulating blood pressure.

Calcineurin Inhibition Affects Na(K)Cl Cotransporter Activity in Kidney Distal Nephron

The calcineurin inhibitors (CNI) tacrolimus and cyclosporine A (CsA) are widely used for immunosuppression. However, side effects such as hypertension and electrolyte disorders commonly occur. Our previous data suggest that tacrolimus exerts local effects in kidney distal convoluted tubule (DCT), leading to activation of the Na+, Cl- cotransporter (NCC), salt retention and hypertension. This study aims to provide the molecular basis for the renal action of CsA. Calcineurin Aa and Ab isoforms were ubiquitously detected along mouse isolated nephron segments by immunoblotting and qPCR. Calcineurin Aa was preferentially colocalized with NCC in DCT subapical region, whereas calcineurin Ab was enriched together with Na+, K+, Cl- cotransporter (NKCC2) in the thick ascending limb (TAL). Immunophilins, mediating the inhibitory effects of CsA, were detected in both TAL and DCT of mice and rats using immunofluorescence and in situ hybridization. Acute as well as chronic administration of CsA in rats induced strong increases of NKCC2 and NCC phosphorylation without changes in their abundance, suggesting that activation of both cotransporters occurred at the posttranslational level. Analysis of the WNK-SPAK/OSR1 kinase cascade, controlling phosphorylation of the transporters, suggested enhanced activity in both distal segments. In sum, our data identify local components of calcineurin signalling in TAL and DCT which are likely involved in the activation of NKCC2 and NCC upon CNI. These results may have implications for antihypertensive therapy during immune suppression.

Protein phosphatase 1 Inhibitor‐1 deficiency causes hypotension and reduces the phosphorylation of renal NaCl cotransporter (892.18)

The thiazide‐sensitive NaCl cotransporter (NCC) of the renal distal convoluted tubule (DCT) controls ion homeostasis and blood pressure (BP). Gain‐of‐function in NCC‐regulating kinases or loss‐of‐function of NCC alters BP. The size and location of the DCT has hindered efforts to identify new molecular regulators of this protein. Here, we performed automated sorting of mouse DCTs and microarray analysis for identification of DCT‐enriched gene products, which may regulate NCC. We identified protein phosphatase‐1 inhibitor‐1 (I‐1) as a DCT enriched transcript. Immunolocalisation revealed I‐1 expression in mouse and human DCTs and thick ascending limbs. Coexpression of NCC with I‐1 increased thiazide‐ dependent Na+ uptake, whereas RNAi‐mediated knockdown of I‐1 reduced NCC phosphorylation. Likewise, levels of phosphorylated NCC decreased by approximately 50% in I‐1 knockout mice (I1‐/‐). Compared with WT mice, I1‐/‐ mice had lower arterial BP, but did not display other metabolic features of NCC dysregulation. Thus, I‐1 is a DCT enriched gene product that controls arterial BP, possibly through regulation of NCC.Grant Funding Source: Swiss National Fund

P2Y2 receptor activation inhibits the expression of the sodium-chloride cotransporter NCC in distal convoluted tubule cells

Luminal nucleotide stimulation is known to reduce Na(+) transport in the distal nephron. Previous studies suggest that this mechanism may involve the thiazide-sensitive Na(+)-Cl(-) cotransporter (NCC), which plays an essential role in NaCl reabsorption in the cells lining the distal convoluted tubule (DCT). Here we show that stimulation of mouse DCT (mDCT) cells with ATP or UTP promoted Ca(2+) transients and decreased the expression of NCC at both mRNA and protein levels. Specific siRNA-mediated silencing of P2Y2 receptors almost completely abolished ATP/UTP-induced Ca(2+) transients and significantly reduced ATP/UTP-induced decrease of NCC expression. To test whether local variations in the intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]i) may control NCC transcription, we overexpressed the Ca(2+)-binding protein parvalbumin selectively in the cytosol or in the nucleus of mDCT cells. The decrease in NCC mRNA upon nucleotide stimulation was abolished in cells overexpressing cytosolic PV but not in cells overexpressing either a nuclear-targeted PV or a mutated PV unable to bind Ca(2+). Using a firefly luciferase reporter gene strategy, we observed that the activity of NCC promoter region from -1 to -2,200bp was not regulated by changes in [Ca(2+)]i. In contrast, high cytosolic calcium level induced instability of NCC mRNA. We conclude that in mDCT cells: (1) P2Y2 receptor is essential for the intracellular Ca(2+) signaling induced by ATP/UTP stimulation; (2) P2Y2-mediated increase of cytoplasmic Ca(2+) concentration down-regulates the expression of NCC; (3) the decrease of NCC expression occurs, at least in part, via destabilization of its mRNA.