Mountain Zebra National Park Research Articles

Effects of Environmental Factors on Plant Productivity in the Mountain Grassland of the Mountain Zebra National Park, Eastern Cape, South Africa

The relationship between plant productivity, measured according to biomass and species richness, is a fundamental focal point in community ecology, as it provides the basis for understanding plant responses or adaptive strategies. Although studies have been conducted on plant biomass and environmental factors, research concerning mountainous grassland areas is scarce. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to examine the influence of environmental factors on aboveground plant biomass in the mountainous grassland of the Mountain Zebra National Park, South Africa. Biomass distribution was uneven within the park, owing to certain species having relatively higher biomass values. These differences may be attributed to the chemical and physical properties of the soil, including carbon and nitrogen content, soil pH, and soil texture (sand, silt, and coarse fragments). A disc pasture meter was used to collect biomass data. Multiple regression analysis revealed that most environmental factors did not significantly influence plant biomass. The only environmental factor influencing plant biomass was soil pH; the influences of other factors were not statistically significant. The results of this study elucidate the interactions of environmental factors with plant biomass. Future research could investigate how environmental factors influence plant biomass, both below and above the ground in mountainous grassland.

Erratum: The influence of fire presence and absence on grass species composition and species richness at Mountain Zebra National Park

No abstract available.

Influence of Environmental Factors on Species Richness and Diversity in a Semi-Arid Environment, South Africa

The Nama Karoo biome is one of the least well-studied biomes in the semi-arid region of South Africa, and essential baseline biodiversity data for this region are lacking. The aim of the present study was to examine the influence of environmental factors on the species diversity and richness of Mountain Zebra National Park, South Africa, which includes this vital biome. Vegetation data were obtained using the step-point method. Both species richness and diversity were unaffected by slope, aspect, coarse fragments, and soil texture. Multiple linear regression analyses indicated that a combination of four variables (nitrogen, clay, and sand contents, and longitude) should be included in the optimal model for species richness, and the optimal model for species diversity also revealed four influencing variables: soil organic carbon, clay and sand contents, and longitude. Overall, both species richness and diversity could be predicted by a combination of climatic, topographic, and soil properties. The findings of this study can be used as a reference for the effects of environmental factors on plant species richness and diversity in semi-arid environments.

Temporal partitioning and the potential for avoidance behaviour within South African carnivore communities.

Carnivora occupy many ecological niches fundamental to ecosystem functioning. Within this diverse order, carnivore species compete to establish dominance, ensure survival and maintain fitness. Subordinate carnivores must, therefore, adapt their behaviour to coexist with dominant species. One such strategy is the partitioning of temporal activity patterns. We aim to determine interspecific avoidance patterns among sympatric carnivores by examining coexistence along a temporal axis. We compared the temporal activity patterns of 13 carnivore species using multi-seasonal camera trapping data from four protected areas across South Africa: Associated Private Nature Reserves, Madikwe Game Reserve, Mountain Zebra National Park and Tswalu Kalahari Reserve. Interspecific coefficients of overlap in diel and core activity periods were calculated over the study period and during the wet and dry seasons. Furthermore, interspecific spatiotemporal behaviour was examined using time-to-event analyses. Our results showed that complete avoidance of diel activity patterns was rare among South African carnivore species. Most species were predominantly nocturnal and, therefore, diel activity overlap was high, whereas core activity overlap was significantly lower (p < .001). Diel activity overlap was significantly lower during the dry than wet seasons (p = .045). Lastly, evidence of spatiotemporal aggregation revolved around scavenging species. We show the importance of seasonality in the temporal avoidance behaviours of South African carnivores while highlighting the need for fine-scaled behavioural analyses. Overall, we show that the daily activity patterns of most subordinate South African carnivore species are not influenced by top-down forces in the form of competitional suppression and risk exerted by dominant species. If avoidance is required, it is more likely to manifest as fine-scaled avoidance of core activity periods. We suggest that the focus on core activity periods might be a more suitable tool for interspecific temporal partitioning research.

The influence of fire presence and absence on grass species composition and species richness at Mountain Zebra National Park

It is well known that fire is a common driver in many biomes and it plays a vital role in maintaining ecosystem functioning in many South African biomes. This ecosystem process is an important determinant of plant community composition and diversity, and can result in changes in structural composition and ecosystem functioning. The main objectives of this study are to determine the influence of fire on grass species richness, diversity and composition in Mountain Zebra National Park. Using satellite imagery, the park’s fire history was determined between 2000 and 2020. Eighty plots (approximately 20 m × 20 m; 100 m apart) were laid out purposively across different fire regimes. There was no significant difference in both species richness and diversity in burned and unburned sites. However, there was a difference in species composition between burned and unburned sites and between different fire frequencies. The unburned site had higher moribund material and unpalatable grasses compared to the burned area.Conservation implications: The results of this study will help in the completion of the fire management plan for the park which will enable conservation managers to make better decisions with regard to fire management in mountainous grassland at Mountain Zebra National Park. Consequently, this will lead to improved veld condition and vegetation structure.

The impact of drought in the Karoo - revisiting diatoms as water quality indicators in the upper reaches of the Great Fish River, Eastern Cape, South Africa

This paper examines the efficacy of diatoms as bioindicators of water quality in the upper reaches of the Great Fish River following a period of reduced flow from drought conditions. Of the five sites, three were sampled three times in an 18 month period while the remaining two were sampled once. As a comparison, one headwater site within Mountain Zebra National Park, situated in the same district, was sampled. A total of 166 diatom taxa belonging to 29 genera were identified. Dominant taxa for the Great Fish River were identified as Amphora pediculus; Epithemia sorex; Nitzschia frustulum; Navicula veneta and Craticula buderi. These species, indicative of high nutrient concentrations and moderately saline to brackish conditions can tolerate low flow conditions. The Generic Diatom Index (GDI), the Specific Pollution sensitivity Index (SPI) the Biological Diatom Index (BDI) and the% Pollution Tolerant Valves (%PTV) – part of the UK Trophic Diatom Index (TDI) were used for interpretation of the results. The indices showed that this river is in poor condition. By comparison the headwater site in the Mountain Zebra National Park had Cocconeis placentula var. euglypta, Achnanthidium minutissimum and Cocconeis placentula var. lineata as dominant species and, using the same indices, the river was classified as in moderate to good condition with respect to water quality. When compared to a previous study (2010 – 2012), these sites showed a shift in dominant species indicating a change in water flow conditions and quality.

Three New Insectivorous Bat Species Records for the Mountain Zebra National Park, South Africa

<i>African Journal of Wildlife Research</i> is a multidisciplinary journal that has been published since 1971 and covers the scientific, applied, managerial, methodological, and sociological issues related to wildlife research.

Mammals in the mountains: An historical review and updated checklist of the mammals of the Mountain Zebra National Park

Based on published and unpublished records, together with original data collected from regular field trips over a 15-year period, 68 mammal species have been reliably recorded from the Mountain Zebra National Park. I assessed the current status of all mammal species, in relation to park expansion and research effort over time (1937–2020). Although numerous large and charismatic mammal species have been reintroduced to the park since it was gazetted in 1937, both in an attempt to restore the historical diversity of the region and to attract tourists, research effort in the surveying of the smaller and more cryptic mammal species has been sorely lacking. I recommend that future survey work targets the small, mostly fossorial mammals (i.e. golden and rodent moles, elephant shrews and gerbils) and insectivorous bats.Conservation implications: This work provides critical presence data for several mammal species from an important protected area that straddles three biomes in South Africa.

Mountain Zebra National Park phytosociological classification: A case study of scale and management in the Eastern Cape, South Africa

Mountain Zebra National Park has been extended over a number of years. To develop a scientifically sound management programme for the Park it was essential that an inventory of its natural resources was instituted. As a result various phytosociological studies were undertaken on the newly acquired farms to identify the different plant communities present on each. These detailed maps and descriptions are regarded too fine scale for the management of this large area taking into account the limited time, human and financial resources. The aim of this study was to use the detailed plant community descriptions together with land type data and produce a broad vegetation map, which can serve as management units. Land type data for the Park was used to stratify the area into physiographic units which was further refined into terrain landscape units (TLU's) and terrain units (TU's). The floristic data was analysed using both the BBPC suite and JUICE software packages. The large units identified from a TWINSPAN analysis were related to the different terrain landscape units (TLU's) and landscape units (LU's) from where a broad vegetation map was produced. The study resulted in the identification, classification and description of three major terrain landscape units (TLU) which have been divided into 13 landscape units (LU) and two sub-units. This new approach proved to be an accurate and effective way whereby various floristically defined plant communities for a large area could be lumped together into landscape units (LU's) that can be used for management purposes.

The influence of an apex predator introduction on an already established subordinate predator

AbstractAfrican lions (Panthera leo) can influence the location, distribution and behaviour of smaller carnivores such as cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). In fenced protected areas, where space is limited, the effects of the apex predator can be exaggerated to the point of localized extinction of the subordinate. Here, we directly compare the prey selection of cheetahs before and after the re‐introduction of lions to the Mountain Zebra National Park, South Africa. The lion re‐introduction did not significantly influence the diet of the cheetahs. Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) comprised &gt;75% of cheetah diet both before and after the lion re‐introduction with no noticeable changes in the size ranges of prey selected. In addition, there was no significant dietary overlap (O &lt; 0.45) with the lions. Our study supports recent findings that cheetahs, as subordinate predators, can coexist with larger, more aggressive carnivores within an enclosed environment without compromising access to resources. However, our work represents a temporal snapshot into lion and cheetah foraging behaviour in an enclosed system and we recommend further research across multiple sites and predator densities.

A Multi-Scale, Participatory Approach to Developing a Protected Area Wetland Inventory in South Africa

Given limited time, staffing and specialist expertise, management of wetlands within biodiversity-rich protected areas of developing countries is often held back by a lack of information on the extent and nature of wetland resources. Rapid, realistic and effective wetland ecosystem assessment methods are needed to develop a baseline for monitoring that detects trends and guides management. Lack of available in-house wetland expertise stimulated a novel team which harnessed wide-ranging complementary and, ultimately, indispensable expertise, spanning all branches of the park, including park management and rangers, Scientific Services and Biodiversity Social Projects. Within a year, the team developed a sufficiently comprehensive inventory which captured the variation of wetlands present in Mountain Zebra National Park, South Africa. A total of 267 wetlands were mapped, while 62 were visited in the field and assessed through rapid verification. Careful collation of existing data and imagery informed a catchment approach, an emphasis on wetland-landscape connectivity, and strategic targeting of a sub-set of important and representative sites deserving of targeted, high effort field assessment. The remaining wetlands not visited in the field were subject to desktop review. Overall, this resulted in a comprehensive overview assessment of the entire Park at multiple scales. The approach of convening a multi-disciplinary team supports strengthened governance and integrated implementation of the findings into park planning, management and rehabilitation. The process provides a potential template for rolling out similar work in other parks and other areas that have limited funding and capacity.

Translocation a potential corridor for equine piroplasms in Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra).

Translocation of animals in fragmented habitats is an important means of dispersal and gene flow, however, the movement of animals has led to the spread of various diseases globally and wildlife are often the reservoirs of these diseases. Currently, Cape mountain zebra are translocated within South Africa as a management method for augmentation of isolated and fragmented populations. The movement of pathogens due to translocations in local regions have gone largely unchecked, particularly where there may still be isolated regions that can be negatively affected. Equine piroplasmosis is a tick-borne disease caused by Theilaria equi and/or Babesia caballi reported to occur in equids (Bhoora et al., 2010; Zweygarth et al., 2002). Here, the presence of T. equi and B. caballi was detected in 137 clinically healthy Cape mountain zebra from three South African reserves, Mountain Zebra National Park (MZNP), De Hoop Nature Reserve (DHNR) and Karoo National Park (KNP) using the multiplex EP real-time PCR (qPCR) assay. We observed 100% prevalence for T. equi and identified only one animal from MZNP with B. caballi. These results affirm that precautions should be taken prior to founding new populations of Cape mountain zebra and that potential farms and properties adjacent to prospective reserves should be screened for the presence of the organisms in order to mitigate risks of infection to domestic animals.

Ecosystem description and diversity of the Jurisdam–Seekoegat sections of the Mountain Zebra National Park, South Africa

The purpose of this paper is to give an ecological description of the vegetation of the Jurisdam-Seekoegat section of the Mountain Zebra National Park in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The effect of different land use practices on the vegetation composition was also investigated. Vegetation classifications and descriptions are of immense value to scientists and land managers and provide information on the composition, structure, diversity and effect of management on the different ecosystems present. The Braun-Blanquet approach was used to classify the different plant communities, while the veld condition was determined using the Ecological Index Method. Plant community data was analysed using the JUICE software package while diversity of the different plant communities was determined using the Shannon–Wiener and Gini–Simpson Indices. From a TWINSPAN analysis eight plant communities that can be grouped into six major communities were identified. Two plant communities not previously described for the Park were identified. The different plant communities can all be related to topography and effect of previous land use. Grasses and dwarf shrubs are the most prominent species. The plant communities of the rocky midslope areas achieved the highest species richness and diversity for the study area. The areas least affected by heavy grazing had a higher veld condition score than those heavily grazed by domestic animals in the past. The results of this study also emphasises the importance of resting overgrazed veld, while it seems that heavily grazed areas will not recover without further human intervention. A vegetation map of the different plant communities was produced using ArcGIS.

Recent cheetah (acinonyx jubatus) kills as carnivore “feeding hubs”: a taphonomic study of prey size and age differences

Here we report on the taphonomy of 29 lower jaws recovered from 25 recent cheetah kill assemblages collected in the Mountain Zebra National Park (MZNP, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa). Cheetah kills commonly attract other carnivores and so serve as “feeding hubs”. As only a limited number of carnivores were present in MZNP at the time of this study, we could constrain the potential sources of taphonomic damage to cheetahs, black-backed jackals and brown hyaenas. The collected jaws derive from eight different prey species that differ in body weight as well as age (adult versus juvenile). Patterns of bone damage were examined for three different portions of the mandible: the anterior portion (incisor-diastema region), the mandible corpus and the posterior mandible (gonion, ramus, mandible condyle, coronoid process). Surface micro-damage was also scored.Statistically significant differences in the extent of taphonomic damage was found in the posterior portion of the mandible as well as the mandible corpus between large-sized prey species and medium to small-sized prey, but no differences were found in damage intensity in the anterior portion of the mandible. Surprisingly no significant age-related differences were found between adults and juveniles in the extent of mandibular damage, but sample sizes are small. Dimensions of pits, punctures and scores on all jaws studied (irrespective of species) indicate the primary activity of a small-sized canid (jackal) and/or medium-sized felid (cheetah), with secondary input of a large-sized carnivore (hyaena).Though sample sizes examined are small, this offers a promising approach for the investigation of inter-specific taphonomic signatures on prey carcasses from carnivore “feeding hubs”.

Hiding in Plain Sight: Evidence of Hybridization between Cape Mountain Zebra (Equus zebra zebra) and Plains Zebra (Equus quagga burchelli)

Historically, Cape mountain zebras (Equus zebra zebra) were widely distributed along mountain ranges in the Eastern and Western Cape provinces of South Africa (Boshoff, Landman & Kerley, 2015). By the 1930s, excessive hunting and habitat loss resulted in a reduction in Cape mountain zebra numbers with populations being confined to only five localities. Two of these subpopulations subsequently became extinct. Three relic populations currently exist; the population in the Cradock district,was formally protected in 1937 by the proclamation of the Mountain Zebra National Park (MZNP; Lloyd 1984). The two other populations in the Kammanassie and Gamka Mountains, have been protected since 1923 and 1971, respectively. Cape mountain zebra numbers increased steadily from their critical status of fewer than 80 individuals in the 1950s, to an estimated minimum of 4791 individuals by 2015 (Hrabar & Kerley, 2015). Plains zebra (Equus quagga burchelli) were subsequently introduced, in sympatry with Cape mountain zebra into four formally protected areas, including the MZNP in 1999 and Karoo National Park in 1998. Until recently no cases of hybridization between plains zebra and Cape mountain zebra were known. Hybridization was not of great concern as a threat to Cape mountain zebra populations as fertile hybrids were thought to be unlikely, due to the relatively large difference in the number of chromosomal pairs between the two species (44 versus 32 in plains zebra and Cape mountain zebra, respectively; Ryder, Epel & Benirschke, 1978; Cordingley et al., 2009; Hrabar & Kerley, 2013). By 2013, the plains zebra population had increased substantially in the MZNP (estimated at 769 Cape mountain zebra and 124 plains zebra by aerial census (unpublished aerial census data, 2013) and were potentially competing with Cape mountain zebra for resources. A decision was thus taken to remove the plains zebra. This intervention resulted in a disruption in the social structure, and some of the small, fragmented groups or plains zebra individuals joined Cape mountain zebra herds. In addition, conservation officials observed ‘Cape mountain zebra’ with plains zebra characteristics. These included slight shadow striping, stripes extending all the way down to the ventral midline of the chest and abdomen, and, although they did have the reddish muzzle of mountain zebra, they did not have the characteristic mountain zebra gridiron pattern on their rumps (Fig. 1), but rather had absent or distorted patterns on the rump. They exhibited the distinct dewlap of the Cape mountain zebra and ear shapes were similar to plains zebra. This raised concerns of possible hybridization between the two species. Here, we report on a molecular evaluation using maternal, paternal and biparental markers to identify suspected hybrid Cape mountain and plains zebra in MZNP and Karoo National Park, South Africa.

The vegetation of the farms Jurisdam and Zeekoegat of the Mountain Zebra National Park, Eastern Cape

The vegetation of the farms Jurisdam and Zeekoegat of the Mountain Zebra National Park, Eastern Cape

Long-term stability of grazing lawns in a small protected area, the Mountain Zebra National Park

We examined a heavily grazed plant community dominated by creeping grass species with the aim of, (1) determining its response to the exclusion of grazing and (2) its long-term persistence. This plant community was particularly favoured by wild ungulate species that prefer short grasses – blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi), springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) and black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou). Exclusion of grazing by large herbivores by means of fencing resulted in the virtual disappearance of the creeping grasses and their replacement by tall tufted species. On plots that remained unfenced, the plant species composition was found to be little changed after an interval of more than 20 years. The number large stock unit equivalents (LSU) per ha carried by the plant community was used as a proxy for grazing intensity. Monitored for approximately 2 years at the start of the study, LSU per ha was found to greatly exceed levels recommended for commercial livestock production. This plant community conforms to a recently published definition of a grazing lawn, in that intense grazing promotes palatable, grazing-tolerant grass species.Conservation implications: The positive association between grazers and grazing-tolerant grass species evidently persisted for more than 20 years and there was no evidence of an increase in abundance of unpalatable plant species. Despite the small size of the park, which limited the extent of large herbivore movements, localised heavy grazing did not lead to range degradation.

Bushclumps as refugia for small mammals in two Eastern Cape conservation areas

Bushclumps are scattered islands of thicket-like vegetation within a matrix of more open vegetation. We investigated the role of bushclumps as refugia for small mammals, and examined the effect of a limited number of abiotic and biotic factors on their richness, diversity and abundance. Small mammals were surveyed using Sherman small mammal traps at two sites in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa (Mountain Zebra National Park and Kwandwe Private Game Reserve). Soil hardness and seed abundance, inside and outside bushclumps, were determined. Trap success was significantly higher inside bushclumpsthan in areas outside, and species diversity and the abundance of small mammals were greater within bushclumps compared tooutside. Bushclumps also had significantly softer soil and a higher concentration of seeds. We conclude that bushclumps provide a concentrated source of food and protection from predators for small mammals, and are thus used significantly more than adjacent open areas. The conservation of bushclumps is therefore important for the overall maintenance of ecosystem functioning.

Bushclumps as refugia for small mammals in two Eastern Cape conservation areas

Bushclumps are scattered islands of thicket-like vegetation within a matrix of more open vegetation. We investigated the role of bushclumps as refugia for small mammals, and examined the effect of a limited number of abiotic and biotic factors on their richness, diversity and abundance. Small mammals were surveyed using Sherman small mammal traps at two sites in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa (Mountain Zebra National Park and Kwandwe Private Game Reserve). Soil hardness and seed abundance, inside and outside bushclumps, were determined. Trap success was significantly higher inside bushclumps than in areas outside, and species diversity and the abundance of small mammals were greater within bushclumps compared to outside. Bushclumps also had significantly softer soil and a higher concentration of seeds. We conclude that bushclumps provide a concentrated source of food and protection from predators for small mammals, and are thus used significantly more than adjacent open areas. The conservation of bushclumps is therefore important for the overall maintenance of ecosystem functioning.

Vegetation description of the Doornhoek section of the Mountain Zebra National Park (MZNP), South Africa

The Mountain Zebra National Park (MZNP) has been extended over the last couple of years. One of the newly procured areas is the Doornhoek section, which had been adjacent to the park. To develop scientifically sound management programmes for conservation areas, it is essential that an inventory of their natural resources be undertaken. The aim of this study was to classify, describe and map the vegetation of the Doornhoek section of the park. The floristic data were analysed in accordance with the Braun-Blanquet procedures using the BBPC suite. The data analysis resulted in the identification of eight communities, which can be grouped into seven major community types (Rhus lucida–Buddleja glomerata Shrubland, Rhigozum obovatum–Rhus longispina Shrubland, Helichrysum dregeanum–Aristida diffusa Grassland, Pentzia globosa–Enneapogon scoparius Grassland, Aristida adscensionus–Pentzia globosa Grassland, Cadaba aphylla–Acacia karroo Woodland and Lycium oxycarpum–Acacia karroo Woodland). Four of these communities occur on the higher-lying plateau, mid-slope and crest areas, while the other four communities are located on the lower-lying mid-plateau and foot slope, along drainage lines and in valley-bottom areas. The description of the plant communities, together with the vegetation map, can serve as a basis for formulating a management programme for the larger park. Although sections of Doornhoek have been overgrazed and degraded in the past, its recent addition to the MZNP contributes to the available habitat preferred by large herbivores, such as valley bottoms, foot-slopes and plateaux.