Mountain Research Station Research Articles

Chronic Gestational Hypoxia Alters Plasma Exosomal miRNA Profile and Pulmonary Arterial Proteome and Metabolome in Fetal Lambs

Antenatal chronic hypoxia negatively impacts fetal development and increases the risk of cardio-pulmonary dysfunction after birth, including newborn pulmonary hypertension. Previously, we showed that fetal and newborn sheep exposed to chronic hypoxia during gestation exhibit a variety of cardio-pulmonary defects that parallel those of human infants including pulmonary vascular remodeling, heart dysfunction, and pulmonary hypertension. To explore the mechanisms involved in hypoxia-mediated newborn pulmonary hypertension, we test the hypothesis that antenatal chronic hypoxia impairs pathways critical to pulmonary vascular development that are coupled to abnormalities in lung structure and function through dysregulation in cell growth and proliferation. To address this hypothesis, we employed an animal model of pregnant sheep exposed to high altitude hypoxia at the White Mountain Research Station, which has an altitude of 3801 meters. Hypoxic pregnant sheep were housed at altitude during gestation for ~110 days out of 138-141 days of pregnancy while normoxic counterparts were kept at 700 meters. Animals were transferred to Loma Linda at 355 meters and fetal lambs studied at ~140 days of gestation. Fetal plasma samples were collected for exosomal miRNA analysis and pulmonary arteries were collected for proteomic and metabolomic analysis. Ingenuity pathway analysis and other bioinformatic tools were used to interrogate regulatory mechanisms and pathways and the web of molecular interactions affected by hypoxia. Antenatal hypoxic stress caused up and down regulation of a limited number of plasma exosomal miRNAs, pulmonary arterial metabolites and proteins, with discrete interconnections between the various analytes and molecules. There were marked changes in upstream regulators and markers that point to increased oxidative stress and inflammatory response along with pronounced downregulation of matrix proteins and phenotypic markers of vascular smooth muscle cell differentiation. Pathway analyses indicate antenatal chronic hypoxia dysregulates growth and proliferation of vascular cells and impinges on cell migration. While these data require additional study and verification, they provide new insights in the understanding of mechanisms underlying the development of pulmonary hypertension in the newborn following antenatal hypoxia. This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health Grants NIH R01HL155295, R01HL149608, R03HD098477, P01HD083132, and U24DK097154. Additional support was provided by the Loma Linda University School of Medicine, A pilot Project through the West Coast Metabolomics Center, the University of Redlands Summer Research Program, and the Walter E. Macpherson Society. This is the full abstract presented at the American Physiology Summit 2024 meeting and is only available in HTML format. There are no additional versions or additional content available for this abstract. Physiology was not involved in the peer review process.

Creating Boundary Objects Supports Knowledge Co-development Processes: A Case Study Evaluation from the Colorado Front Range

Abstract This qualitative case study evaluates manager and researcher perceptions of the impact of a place-based, collaborative knowledge co-development process and examines the outcomes of that co-development for changes to management approaches. The USDA Forest Service (Forest Service) Rocky Mountain Research Station General Technical Report 373 (GTR-373) is a codeveloped science synthesis that functions as a boundary object providing a framework for planning, designing, and implementing management action for restoration of ponderosa and dry mixed-conifer forests. The process of creating and socializing the GTR-373 framework fostered continual knowledge exchange and engagement between researchers and managers across different organizations and levels of decision-making. This built trust in the information, improved justification for management action, developed a common foundation for cross-boundary implementation, and increased communication. The framework has been applied across jurisdictions and has been used as a foundational tool for training staff and designing projects. However, adapting the GTR-373 framework across scales remains challenging. Study Implications: This qualitative case study evaluates a co-development process in which researchers and managers from multiple organizations and agencies collaborated to produce a science-informed restoration framework to support forest management on the Colorado Front Range (GTR-373). The process built trust, improved justification for management action, developed a common foundation for implementation, and increased communication. However, cross-boundary management across spatial scales remains challenging, and managers interpret information through organizational mandates and site-specific context. Sustained collaboration between researchers and land managers can help make science actionable and relevant at the appropriate scale for planning and management across expertise and jurisdictional boundaries.

Beyond the basics: a perspective on barriers and opportunities for scaling up biochar production from forest slash

AbstractBiochar production from woody biomass generated during forest management (slash) offers significant benefits for soil health and carbon emissions, yet its adoption remains limited in the western United States (U.S.). To address this challenge, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (U.S.D.A.) Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station organized two workshops focused on forest management-centric biochar production. These workshops convened a diverse group of stakeholders, including investors, land management practitioners, industry professionals, and research scientists, each with unique roles in slash-based biochar production. This article presents a synthesis of the insights and perspectives gathered from these workshops, aiming to identify barriers and propose viable pathways for overcoming them. The barriers encompass governance issues such as policy and permitting, economic challenges related to costs, funding, and market stability, technological hurdles concerning methods and equipment, and a need for further research and improved science dissemination. In response to these challenges, workshop attendees collaboratively outlined specific strategies to reduce these barriers. These strategies emphasize the expansion of operational initiatives, the development of proactive policies, the stabilization of biochar markets, and the generation of additional case studies showcasing the effects of biochar amendments across various soils and environments. Collectively, the insights gleaned from this workshop series provide a comprehensive roadmap outlining both the struggles and the necessary actions and investments required to enhance the scale of slash-based biochar production and application in the western U.S. Graphical Abstract

A Qualitative Assessment to Inform Strategic Improvement of Research and Development within the USDA Forest Service

Abstract Past reviews of the USDA Forest Service (Forest Service) Research and Development (R&D) branch have identified several persistent challenges, including unclear strategic direction and a need for greater communication with end users. We conducted research focused on the Rocky Mountain Research Station (RMRS) of R&D to understand current perceptions about the station’s efficacy and strategic direction as well as its engagement with partners both inside and outside of Forest Service. We conducted fifty-eight interviews with Forest Service and RMRS leaders, scientists, and partners. Interviewees said national research priorities are unclear, and there is tension between conducting basic and applied science. Nonscientist partners said they depend on RMRS for scientific expertise. Interviewees recommended clarifying research priorities, improving leadership and communication both inside and outside of the agency, investing more in science communication, and strengthening incentives to conduct applied research. These station-level results provide insight into improvements that could be made to enhance R&D’s ability to pursue its mission.

Estimating species misclassification with occupancy dynamics and encounter rates: A semi‐supervised, individual‐level approach

Abstract Large‐scale, long‐term biodiversity monitoring is essential to conservation, land management and identifying threats to biodiversity. However, multispecies surveys are prone to various types of observation error, including false‐positive/false‐negative detection and misclassification, where a species is thought to have been encountered but not correctly identified. Previous methods assume an imperfect classifier produces species‐level classifications, but in practice, particularly with human observers, we may end up with extraspecific classifications including ‘unknown’, morphospecies designations and taxonomic identifications coarser than species. Disregarding these types of species misclassification in biodiversity monitoring datasets can bias estimates of ecologically important quantities such as demographic rates, occurrence and species richness. Here we present a joint classification‐occupancy model that accounts for species non‐detection and misclassification. Our framework accommodates extinction and colonization dynamics, allows for additional uncertain ‘morphospecies’ designations and makes use of individual specimens with known species identities in a semi‐supervised setting. We compare the performance of our model to a classification‐only model that discards information about occupancy and encounter rate. We illustrate our model with an empirical case study of the carabid beetle (Carabidae) community at the National Ecological Observatory Network Niwot Ridge Mountain Research Station, near Boulder, CO, USA. We also use simulations to evaluate model performance through validation metrics where varying fractions of the data are confirmed. The model supported imperfect classifier accuracy and favoured certain true species classifications strongly for some morphospecies. The model outperformed (e.g. precision) the reduced model that discarded occupancy information, and these differences were most pronounced for abundant species. Spatial and temporal dynamics from modelled occupancy and encounter rates may inform species misclassification probability, but this idea has not yet been tested. Our statistical framework explores this opportunity, and can be applied to datasets with imperfect species detection and classification, limited verification data and non‐species classifications.

Organisational influence on the co-production of fire science: overcoming challenges and realising opportunities

Addressing the challenges of wildland fire requires that fire science be relevant to management and integrated into management decisions. Co-production is often touted as a process that can increase the utility of science for management, by involving scientists and managers in knowledge creation and problem solving. Despite the documented benefits of co-production, these efforts face a number of institutional barriers. Further research is needed on how to institutionalise support and incentivise co-production. To better understand how research organisations enable and constrain co-production, this study examined seven co-produced wildland fire projects associated with the US Department of Agriculture Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station (RMRS), through in-depth interviews with scientists, managers and community members. Results provide insights into how organisational structures and cultures influence the co-production of fire science. Research organisations like RMRS may be able to institutionalise co-production by adjusting the way they incentivise and evaluate researchers, increasing investment in science delivery and scientific personnel overall, and supplying long-term funding to support time-intensive collaborations. These sorts of structural changes could help transform the culture of fire science so that co-production is valued alongside more conventional scientific activities and products.

Spatial distribution of atmospheric oil and natural gas volatile organic compounds in the Northern Colorado Front Range

Methane and nonmethane volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were monitored near Boulder in the Northern Colorado Front Range to investigate their spatial distribution and sources as a part of the Front Range Air Pollution and Photochemistry Experiment (FRAPPE) and the Deriving Information on Surface conditions from Column and Vertically Resolved Observations Relevant to Air Quality (DISCOVER-AQ) campaign, in summer 2014. A particular emphasis was the study of the contribution of emissions from oil and natural gas (O&NG) operations on the regional air quality. One network extended along an elevation gradient from the City of Boulder (elevation ≈1,600 m) to the University of Colorado Mountain Research Station (≈2900 m) on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. Light alkane petroleum hydrocarbons had the highest mole fraction of the VOCs that could be analyzed with the applied techniques. The longer lived VOCs ethane and propane decreased with increasing elevation, suggesting that Boulder and the surrounding plains were a source of these anthropogenic compounds. VOC diurnal time series showed a few events with elevated mole fractions at the mountain sites, which were likely the result of the upslope transport of plumes with elevated VOCs from the plains. Within the other site network, which extended into suburban East Boulder County (EBC), VOCs were monitored at 5 sites increasingly close to O&NG development in the Denver Julesburg Basin. Mean mole fractions and variability of primarily O&NG-associated VOCs (ethane, propane, butane isomers) increased by a factor of 2.4–5.2 with closer proximity to the O&NG producing region. Median mole fractions of C2–C5 n-alkanes and of imuch-butane at the EBC sites were higher than those previously reported from 28 larger urban areas in the United States. Among the VOCs that could be quantified with the gas chromatography methods, VOCs most clearly associated to O&NG-related emissions (C2–C5 alkanes) accounted for 52%–79% of the VOC hydroxyl radical reactivity (OHR). The horizontal gradient in OHR of the considered VOCs, with ≈3 times higher values at the furthest eastern sites, points toward higher chemical reactivity and ozone production potential from these ozone precursors in the eastern area of the county than within the City of Boulder.

First Report of Diplodia Shoot Blight and Canker Disease caused by Diplodia sapinea on Ponderosa Pine in Wyoming, USA.

Diplodia sapinea is a common fungal pathogen that causes shoot blight and canker of naturally occurring and planted pines and other conifers throughout the world. Damage can be severe severe, affectingand affect needles, new shoots, branches, and main stems, often leading to mortality. In August 2018, aerial surveys revealed 1,659 ha of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) displaying varying degrees of crown necrosis in Crook County, Wyoming (WY). In May 2019, ground surveys of this area, which was previously affected by hail the previous spring, identified typical Diplodia shoot blight and canker signs and symptoms (e.g., pycnidia, crooked shoots, discolored needles, resinous cankers). Symptoms were observed in thousands of seedlings, saplings, and mature ponderosa pine trees over the large area. Because D. sapinea had not been previously reported in WY, this study was conducted to confirm the presence and aggressiveness of D. sapinea isolates from WY on this commercially and ecologically important host tree. Pycnidia and conidia (size 34 to 39 μm × 12 to 13 μm) consistent with D. sapinea were confirmed in 19 trees from three locations in the county. Three isolates were confirmed as D. sapinea using species-specific PCR (Smith and Stanosz 2006) and are retained at the Rocky Mountain Research Station, Moscow, ID and Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO. To confirm isolate aggressiveness, 3-year-old potted ponderosa pine seedlings were inoculated in greenhouses from March to April 2020 at the Charles E. Bessey Nursery, Halsey, NE using similar methods as previously described (Blodgett and Stanosz 1997). Wounding was conducted using a scalpel to excise a single needle fascicle from a recently expanded shoot. Cuts were made flush to the stem at 2 to 2.5 cm below an apical bud-tip. A 1.5% water-agar plug with cultured mycelia of one of the three DNA-confirmed isolates was placed over the stem wound, or sterile water-agar plugs were used as negative controls. Parafilm® (4-cm wide) was wrapped around the inoculated stems, centered at the wound for 4 weeks. Two independent trials were conducted consecutively, 3 hrs apart, in different greenhouses with five seedlings per isolate or control. Symptoms first appeared 5 days post-inoculation. All seedlings inoculated with the three isolates developed typical D. sapinea symptoms, including cankers (mean length 5.98.7 ± 1.13.0 cm standard error and 5.5 ± 0.8 cm standard error, trial 1 and 2 respectively) at 4-weeks post-inoculation, while mock-inoculated seedlings developed no symptoms. Stem segments (2-cm long) were excised, centered at canker margins (or centered 3 cm below wounds for controls), and surface disinfested for 30 sec in 70% ethanol and 5 min in 1.05% sodium hypochlorite, then placed in Petri plates containing tannic acid agar (Blodgett et al. 2003). After 3 weeks, isolates were subcultured from colony margins to Petri plates containing 1.5% water agar and autoclaved ponderosa pine needles. Pycnidia and conidia consistent with D. sapinea were confirmed after another month from all seedlings inoculated with each isolate, but not from control seedlings. This report confirms that D. sapinea is present in WY, and WY isolates can be aggressive pathogens of ponderosa pine. Reducing host water stress (Blodgett et al. 1997a, Blodgett et al. 1997b) may be the best option to manage Diplodia shoot blight and canker disease in forested sites. This can be accomplished by stand thinning and/or managing competing vegetation. Favoring non-host species might be an alternative management option in areas with severe disease.

Sierra Skies

White Mountain (37.3803°N, 118.1520°W) is the third tallest peak in California, sitting at 4344 m (14,252 ft). These photos were taken by members of the 2018 SEAWARD altitude research study1 on their way to Barcroft Station, a research laboratory built in 1951 on a lower saddle of the peak at 3798 m (12,470 ft). Barcroft Station is part of University of California Los Angeles’ White Mountain research station and is host to facilities and laboratories for various types of research. It hosted Nobel laureate George Smoot during his research on cosmic background radiation and still serves as the site for current studies on altitude’s effect on human physiology.

Comparison of injectable trace minerals vs. adjuvant on measures of innate and humoral immune responses of beef heifers

• Injectable trace minerals (ITM), adjuvant (ADJ) and saline did not impact calf growth • Haptoglobin and ceruloplasmin were greatest for ADJ but similar between SAL and ITM • ITM enhanced calf antibody titers but not to the extent as ADJ injection Previous studies reported heightened innate and humoral immune responses among cattle administered injectable trace minerals (ITM) concurrent to immunogen challenge, thus suggesting a potential adjuvant-like activity of ITM. To pursue this concept further, a two-year study was conducted at the Mountain Research Station (North Carolina State University, Waynesville) to evaluate immunological responses of Angus heifers (n = 22, 235 ± 18 kg of BW and 225 ± 4 d of age in yr 1; n = 36, 237 ± 6 kg of BW and 247 ± 5 d of age in yr 2). On d 0 (30 days after weaning), heifers were administered two 5-mL i.m. injections of porcine red blood cells (PRBC; Lampire Biological Laboratories, Pipersville, PA) solution (25% PRBC and 75% sterile PBS; Amresco, Solon, OH), concurrent to either a single 2.5-mL s.c. injection of sterile saline (SAL; 0.9% NaCl), a squalene-based oil-in-water adjuvant (ADJ; AddaVax; InvivoGen, Inc. San Diego, CA) that specifically induces a humoral immune response, or injectable trace minerals (ITM; MultiMin 90; MultiMin USA, Inc. Fort Collins, CO; 60, 10, 15 and 5 mg/mL of Zn, Mn, Cu and Se). During the 28-d study, heifers were offered tall fescue hay ( Lolium arundinacea ) and concentrate at 1.2 and 1.0% of BW (DM basis), respectively, blended with 114 g daily of a complete mineral mix. Shrunk BW was recorded on d 0 and 28 following 12 h of feed and water withdrawal. Blood samples were collected on d 0, 2, 7, 15, and 21 for determination of antibody titers against PRBC and plasma concentrations of ceruloplasmin and haptoglobin. Liver biopsy samples were collected 1 mo prior to weaning and on d 15 after weaning for determination of trace mineral status. No differences were detected ( P ≥ 0.13) for BW change, ADG, G:F, or DMI. Liver Se concentrations on d 15 were greater ( P ≤ 0.01) for heifers receiving ITM compared to SAL and ADJ treatments. Plasma haptoglobin concentrations on d 2 were greatest for ADJ ( P < 0.0001) and did not differ between SAL and ITM heifers ( P ≥ 0.46). Plasma ceruloplasmin concentrations on d 2 were greatest for ADJ ( P ≤ 0.04) and did not differ between SAL and ITM heifers ( P = 0.39). On d 7, plasma concentrations of ceruloplasmin did not differ ( P = 0.37) between ADJ and ITM, were less for SAL vs. ADJ ( P = 0.005), and tended to differ ( P = 0.064) between ITM and SAL heifers. Serum PRBC titers were greatest for ADJ ( P ≤ 0.03) vs. SAL on d 7, 15, and 21 and ITM on d 7 ( P < 0.001). Serum PRBC titers did not differ between SAL and ITM on d 7 and 15 ( P ≥ 0.23), but were greater in ITM vs. SAL on d 21 ( P = 0.03). In summary, ITM prolonged the antibody titers against PRBC on d 21 compared to saline injection in mineral-adequate beef calves, but not as quickly or to the extent of ADJ injection.

Finding Methuselah: New Light on an Old Story

Edmund Schulman is rightly honored for quantifying the age of bristlecone pines and discovering individuals significantly older than giant sequoias (Sequoiadendron gigantea), previously thought to be the oldest living things. However, George Engelmann inferred the potential for great age in his description of bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata) almost a century before, in 1863. Staff from Inyo National Forest re-made Engelmann's inference, and publically asserted that White Mountain bristlecones might outlive giant sequoias before Schulman had published any results of his bristlecone research.Schulman sampled White Mountains pines after seeing a photograph and caption associated with an article by founders of the University of California White Mountain Research Station. Although Schulman's correspondence and publications make this clear, incorrect theories regarding his decision to come to the White Mountains have been published and are promulgated at the Schulman Grove Visitor Center in the White Mountains. This paper places Schulman's work in its historic context by recovering forgotten information about attempts by Inyo National Forest staff and White Mountain Research Station to call attention to the trees. It also recovers details of Schulman's and C. Wesley Ferguson's activities in the White Mountains range as documented in field notes and Thomas Harlan's Bristlecone Pine Project database.

Comparison of ozone measurement methods in biomass burning smoke: an evaluation under field and laboratory conditions.

In recent years wildland fires in the United States have had significant impacts on local and regional air quality and negative human health outcomes. Although the primary health concerns from wildland fires come from fine particulate matter (PM2.5), large increases in ozone (O3) have been observed downwind of wildland fire plumes (DeBell et al., 2004; Bytnerowicz et al., 2010; Preisler et al., 2010; Jaffe et al., 2012; Bytnerowicz et al., 2013; Jaffe et al., 2013; Lu et al., 2016; Lindaas et al., 2017; McClure and Jaffe, 2018; Liu et al., 2018; Baylon et al., 2018; Buysse et al., 2019). Conditions generated in and around wildland fire plumes, including the presence of interfering chemical species, can make the accurate measurement of O3 concentrations using the ultraviolet (UV) photometric method challenging if not impossible. UV photometric method instruments are prone to interferences by volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are present at high concentrations in wildland fire smoke. Four different O3 measurement methodologies were deployed in a mobile sampling platform downwind of active prescribed grassland fire lines in Kansas and Oregon and during controlled chamber burns at the United States Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station Fire Sciences Laboratory in Missoula, Montana. We demonstrate that the Federal Reference Method (FRM) nitric oxide (NO) chemiluminescence monitors and Federal Equivalent Method (FEM) gas-phase (NO) chemical scrubber UV photometric O3 monitors are relatively interference-free, even in near-field combustion plumes. In contrast, FEM UV photometric O3 monitors using solid-phase catalytic scrubbers show positive artifacts that are positively correlated with carbon monoxide (CO) and total gas-phase hydrocarbon (THC), two indicator species of biomass burning. Of the two catalytic scrubber UV photometric methods evaluated, the instruments that included a Nafion® tube dryer in the sample introduction system had artifacts an order of magnitude smaller than the instrument with no humidity correction. We hypothesize that Nafion®-permeating VOCs (such as aromatic hydrocarbons) could be a significant source of interference for catalytic scrubber UV photometric O3 monitors and that the inclusion of a Nafion® tube dryer assists with the mitigation of these interferences. The chemiluminescence FRM method is highly recommended for accurate measurements of O3 in wildland fire plume studies and at regulatory ambient monitoring sites frequently impacted by wildland fire smoke.

Effect of Inbreeding Coefficient on Growth and Fitness Traits in a Closed Flock of Corriedale Sheep

Background: The corriedale sheep breed was imported into J and K during sixties for use in improvement of local sheep and are maintained at Mountain Research Station of Sheep and Goat, SKUAST- K. The animals over the years were allowed to mate within the selected animals of the flock as there was hardy any fresh importation of exotic animals from last 49 years due to which closed flock population was established within the farm. This has led to apprehensions over the loss of genetic diversity through years.Methods: The present study was to undertaken to evaluate the performance of Corriedale sheep under temperate climate and to estimate the inbreeding coefficient and its effect on growth and fitness traits of Corriedale sheep maintained at Mountain Research Centre for Sheep and Goat (MRCSG), F.V.Sc and A.H, SKUAST-K Shuhama, Kashmir. The information on performance and pedigree spanning over a period of 49 years (1969-2017) was collected and utilized for the study. The traits studied were birth weight (BW), weaning weight (WW), 6 months weight (6MW), 9 months weight (9MW) and 12 months weight (12MW) age at first lambing (AFL), litter size (LS), total lambs born per ewe (TLB) and survival rate (SR). Result: The averages estimates for BW, WW, 6MW, 9MW, 12MW, AFL, LS, TLB and SR were 3.72±0.01 kg, 13.31±0.07 kg, 18.65±0.05kg, 22.15±0.04 kg, 25.84±0.06 kg 807.20±4.34 days, 1.08±0.00, 4.83±0.03 and 80.76±1.98, respectively. The overall inbreeding coefficient (F) and proportion of population inbred (per cent) for Corriedale sheep were 18.3 and 43.3, respectively. The increased inbreeding coefficient had negative impact and highly significant (p less than 0.01) on all the traits under study except LS. The increased inbreeding coefficient (F) also had a negative impact on all the traits under study. With increase in the level of inbreeding there was a decrease in total body weight traits, lambs born per ewe and survival rate where as age at first lambing was increasing with the increase. he results indicated as decrease of 0.25 kg, 1.45 kg, 5.04 kg, 5.53 kg and 5.48 kg in body weight of the animals at birth, weaning weight, six months, nine months and twelve months from 1969-2017. To overcome the negative impact of inbreeding coefficient in the flock introduction of genetic variability through importation of Corriedale germplasm into the farm is highly recommended.

Microanatomical traits track climate gradients for a dominant C4 grass species across the Great Plains, USA.

Andropogon gerardii is a highly productive C4 grass species with a large geographic range throughout the North American Great Plains, a biome characterized by a variable temperate climate. Plant traits are often invoked to explain growth rates and competitive abilities within broad climate gradients. For example, plant competition models typically predict that species with large geographic ranges benefit from variation in traits underlying high growth potential. Here, we examined the relationship between climate variability and leaf-level traits in A. gerardii, emphasizing how leaf-level microanatomical traits serve as a mechanism that may underlie variation in commonly measured traits, such as specific leaf area (SLA). Andropogon gerardii leaves were collected in August 2017 from Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve (MN), Konza Prairie Biological Station (KS), Platte River Prairie (NE) and Rocky Mountain Research Station (SD). Leaves from ten individuals from each site were trimmed, stained and prepared for fluorescent confocal microscopy to analyse internal leaf anatomy. Leaf microanatomical data were compared with historical and growing season climate data extracted from PRISM spatial climate models. Microanatomical traits displayed large variation within and across sites. According to AICc (Akaike's information criterion adjusted for small sample sizes) selection scores, the interaction of mean precipitation and temperature for the 2017 growing season was the best predictor of variability for the anatomical and morphological traits measured here. Mesophyll area and bundle sheath thickness were directly correlated with mean temperature (annual and growing season). Tissues related to water-use strategies, such as bulliform cell and xylem area, were significantly correlated with one another. The results indicate that (1) microanatomical trait variation exists within this broadly distributed grass species, (2) microanatomical trait variability appears likely to impact leaf-level carbon and water use strategies, and (3) microanatomical trait values vary across climate gradients, and may underlie variation in traits measured at larger ecological scales.

Integrating National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON) Airborne Remote Sensing and In-Situ Data for Optimal Tree Species Classification

Accurately mapping tree species composition and diversity is a critical step towards spatially explicit and species-specific ecological understanding. The National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON) is a valuable source of open ecological data across the United States. Freely available NEON data include in-situ measurements of individual trees, including stem locations, species, and crown diameter, along with the NEON Airborne Observation Platform (AOP) airborne remote sensing imagery, including hyperspectral, multispectral, and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data products. An important aspect of predicting species using remote sensing data is creating high-quality training sets for optimal classification purposes. Ultimately, manually creating training data is an expensive and time-consuming task that relies on human analyst decisions and may require external data sets or information. We combine in-situ and airborne remote sensing NEON data to evaluate the impact of automated training set preparation and a novel data preprocessing workflow on classifying the four dominant subalpine coniferous tree species at the Niwot Ridge Mountain Research Station forested NEON site in Colorado, USA. We trained pixel-based Random Forest (RF) machine learning models using a series of training data sets along with remote sensing raster data as descriptive features. The highest classification accuracies, 69% and 60% based on internal RF error assessment and an independent validation set, respectively, were obtained using circular tree crown polygons created with half the maximum crown diameter per tree. LiDAR-derived data products were the most important features for species classification, followed by vegetation indices. This work contributes to the open development of well-labeled training data sets for forest composition mapping using openly available NEON data without requiring external data collection, manual delineation steps, or site-specific parameters.

Ground Cover—What Are the Critical Criteria and Why Does It Matter?

This publication is the result of concerns expressed regarding the definition and subsequent use of ground cover in rangeland monitoring. We reviewed 20 monitoring publications. All publications reviewed contained a definition of ground cover and/or direction on how to monitor ground cover. The majority of these publications also defined bare ground. In all cases, bare ground was defined as the opposite of ground cover.We identified critical criteria of ground cover based on the role it plays in soil conservation as it relates to water and wind erosion. Critical criteria identified included standing and nonstanding live vegetation, standing and nonstanding dead vegetation including litter, and rock. We compared these critical criteria to the 20 monitoring publications reviewed. We found 19 of these publications included the criteria standing live vegetation or similar words and standing dead vegetation or similar words in their definition and/or use of ground cover. The one source where standing live or dead vegetation or similar words were not included was “Indicators of Rangeland Health and Functionality in the Intermountain West.” This publication was produced by the US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. Ground cover was limited to basal vegetation, litter, moss/lichen, or rock. We also found inconsistencies in the definition and subsequent use of ground cover in Forest Service Handbook 2209.21–Rangeland Ecosystem Analysis and Monitoring Handbook, Intermountain Region.We contend a large volume of literature supports the inclusion of critical criteria as identified in this report as ground cover. These criteria are essential components contributing to resistance of water and wind erosion important to soil conservation. This review demonstrates the importance of accurately defining and subsequently including critical criteria in rangeland attributes including ground cover. This paper addresses standardizing terms and calculations used in determining ground cover.

Long Term Hypoxia Reduces Antioxidant Levels and Causes a Glycolytic Shift in Neonatal Sheep Pulmonary arteries

Gestational Hypoxia is a common prenatal stress caused by high altitude living, smoking, and other prenatal disorders. Such hypoxic insult can cause abnormalities in lung development that result in pulmonary hypertension in the newborn. Hypoxia is known to cause oxidative stress and accentuate glycolysis in adult tissues, effects which are intertwined with the development of various diseases. However, the adaptive responses of metabolism to long term hypoxia (LTH) in the fetal pulmonary vasculature is not nearly as well understood. The current work tests the hypothesis that following gestational LTH there is reduced antioxidant capacity and increased cellular glycolysis in neonatal sheep. For this study, normoxic pregnant and non‐pregnant sheep were obtained from Nebeker Ranch in Lancaster, CA (~700 meters) and were either sent to Loma Linda for study or to the White Mountain Research Station at an altitude of 3800 meters to induce LTH. After 110+ days at high altitude, animals were transported to Loma Linda University for the study. Pulmonary arteries of adult, 2‐week‐old newborn, and near‐term fetal sheep were isolated and frozen for analysis of primary metabolites. Metabolite levels were analyzed using Gas Chromatograph Time of Flight mass spectrometry (GC‐TOF MS) and visualized using enrichment and pathway analyses. LTH decreased the concentration of the antioxidant glutathione (GSH) and increased lactic acid, a byproduct of glycolysis, in adult and fetus. In the newborn LTH also decreased citric acid, a key intermediate in the Krebs cycle. These data indicate that the mother does not protect the pulmonary vasculature of the fetus from long term hypoxic stress due to gestation at high altitude. Thus, the fetus appears to be vulnerable even at modest altitudes to metabolic shifts and oxidative stress. Effects of these metabolic changes may persist after birth and contribute to the development of disease in the neonate or later in life.Support or Funding InformationThis material is based upon work supported by NIH grants P01HD083132 (LZ) and 1U24DK097154 through a pilot project grant to SMW as well as P20MD006988. IK was an Undergraduate Summer Research Fellow while RA was an Apprenticeship Bridge to College Scholar through the Center for Health Disparities and Molecular Mechanisms at Loma Linda University. VL is a recipient of the American Physiological Society's Short‐Term Research Education Program to Increase Diversity in Health‐Related Research (STRIDE) Fellowship funded by the APS and a grant from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute R25HL115473.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Andropogon virginicus L.

<i>Andropogon virginicus</i> L.

A History of Mortgage Banking in the West: Financing America’s Dreams by E. Michael Rosser and Diane M. Sanders

Reviewed by: A History of Mortgage Banking in the West: Financing America’s Dreams by E. Michael Rosser and Diane M. Sanders Lincoln Bramwell A History of Mortgage Banking in the West: Financing America’s Dreams. By E. Michael Rosser and Diane M. Sanders. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2017. ix + 372 pp. Illustrations, bibliography, suggested readings, index. $35.00 cloth. A book titled A History of Mortgage Banking in the West sounds pretty easy to categorize and market: label it under economic history and call it good. However, this collaborative book by Michael Rosser and Diane Sanders is really a combination of multiple genres. Equal parts economic history, memoir, and geographic history, the book covers the creation and evolution of the mortgage banking industry through the eyes of Rosser, a third-generation mortgage-lending professional whose family ties stretch from Kansas to Colorado. It is here that the industry gets its start in the agricultural communities that blanketed the western Great Plains following the Civil War. The book’s narrative [End Page 219] weaves through the places, companies, and developments that Rosser knows best. Rosser is a deeply experienced insider who methodically explains the evolution of the mortgage industry and, with his coauthor, places it in a historical context. Much like the banking industry itself, Rosser views the history of the West from Euro-American settlement to the 2007 mortgage crisis through the lens of capital. While providing personal examples of home buying and business development, the narrative’s real thrust is an impersonal, clinical calculation of large capital moving across and shaping the landscape. The authors trace the beginning of the modern mortgage-lending industry to the financial needs of farmers that moved into the Plains states following the Civil War. The 1864 National Banking Act severely limited national banks’ investments in real estate, which translated into farmers paying higher land and home finance rates to regional and specialty banks willing to lend for real estate. Rectifying this disparity became a platform of the People’s Party in the 1890s and worked itself into later federal policy when the Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916 created the first government-sponsored enterprise—a privately owned entity backed by the federal government that had a social purpose, in this case “to expand the availability of credit and favorable conditions to underserved groups” (152). This 1916 act produced the first in a series of government-sponsored enterprises that include today’s familiar home mortgage giants, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. The book ends with a postmortem of the 2007 mortgage crisis and a look toward the future. Rosser breaks with consensus on the crashes’ causes by casting equal blame on Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae, whom he believes acted irresponsibly by focusing on increasing shareholder profits and senior management compensation and ended up overextended and in need of a bailout from the federal government. Readers of this journal will be most interested in the book’s ability to connect the Great Plains’ centrality to the mortgage industry and its impact on the nation’s transition from subsistence to commercial agriculture. Lincoln Bramwell USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station Copyright © 2019 Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska–Lincoln

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