Mount Makiling Forest Reserve Research Articles

GIS-BASED SPATIAL ASSESSMENT OF RESORTS IN CALAMBA CITY, LAGUNA, PHILIPPINES

Abstract. Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR) supports the water requirements of many towns in its periphery. One of the towns that benefit from the forest reserve is Calamba City, known for its resort-based tourism. The number of resorts in Calamba has significantly increased from 193 in 1998 to 466 in 2014 which has an implication on water consumption on which one of the initial steps in the monitoring aspect is the determination of its spatial distribution. Therefore, this study aims to determine and analyze the spatial distribution of resorts in Calamba City using Geographic Information System (GIS) to generate a distribution map of all the operating resorts showing the hotspots and clustering of resorts. The study recorded 852 resorts in Calamba City. The dense resort areas and the most significant hot spot area are located at Miramonte Village (Purok 6) and Purok 5 of Barangay Pansol. The result indicates a concentration of resorts in certain regions which raised concerns and should further be studied in terms of sustainable water use and environmental impact. The baseline data generated by this study will supplement the existing data of Calamba City on its resorts and help the local government in formulating effective land use and water extraction policies for the resort-based industry for a more sustainable management and conservation.

Litter Decomposition of a Deciduous Tectona philippinensis and an Evergreen Parashorea malaanonan Across Contrasting Sites

Litter traits and site conditions alter nutrient inputs from deciduous and evergreen forests by influencing litter decomposition processes. Here, we investigated the leaf and stem mass loss rate (MLR) of a deciduous (Tectona philippinensis) and an evergreen (Parashorea malaanonan) tree species and the factors influencing it through an intersite experiment and litterbag method in secondary forests in Lobo, Batangas and Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR). Variations in initial litter quality (leaf area, specific leaf area (SLA), leaf thickness, vein density), and site factors (light intensity and temperature) were assessed. P. malaanonan has a lower SLA and vein density than T. philippinensis. The leaf and stem MLR were significantly higher in the mixed litter (44.09–57.83%) than that of a single-species litter of either T. philippinensis (28.16–41.83%) or P. malaanonan (33.60–47.66%). The leaf MLR of T. philippinensis was greater when placed in Lobo (where the litter originated) than at a different site (i.e., MMFR). Moreover, leaf litter decomposition was faster in T. philippinensis than in P. malaanonan, particularly during the rainy season. Overall, the study showed that litter decomposition in deciduous and evergreen differed across sites due to variations in litter quality and environmental variables. Keywords: decomposability traits, home-field advantage (HFA), intersite experiment, litter quality, mass loss rate

Host plants and nymph morphology of an endemic treehopper, Pyrgonota bifoliata, in the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Luzon, Philippines

ABSTRACT Pyrgonota bifoliata (Insecta: Hemiptera: Membracidae) is a distinct endemic Philippine treehopper species complex distinguished by its extremely elevated and bifurcated pronotal structures. An earlier study suggested that P. bifoliata is a host specialist that feeds on Bridelia (Phyllanthaceae) in northern Luzon and Rubus (Rosaceae) in southern Mindanao. However, the host plant range across the geographical distribution of the P. bifoliata species complex is still poorly understood. In this study, field observations and DNA barcoding were performed to determine the host plant range of P. bifoliata in the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve of Laguna Province on the island of Luzon. The morphology of the last-instar nymph of P. bifoliata was described to facilitate the identification of the species and its host plants. Behavioural interactions between P. bifoliata and its associated ants were also recorded. The results revealed that Piper umbellatum (Piperaceae) and Saurauia latibractea (Actinidiaceae) were the major host plants used by both nymphs and adults of P. bifoliata. The findings indicate that P. bifoliata in the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve of central Luzon is a polyphagous host generalist that primarily utilises two distantly related plant species. The adults of P. bifoliata also occur on Alangium longiflorum (Cornaceae) and Ficus ulmifolia (Moraceae). The nymphs of P. bifoliata are gregarious in small groups and visited by three ant species (Crematogaster sp., Pheidole sp. and Technomyrmex sp.); however, the adults of P. bifoliata are solitary and are never observed with ants. Unlike other treehoppers that are subsocial, the females of P. bifoliata exhibited no maternal care behaviours, such as egg or nymph guarding.

Biodiesel production of oleaginous yeast isolated from the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve

Biodiesel production of oleaginous yeast isolated from the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve

Leaf Traits of Parashorea malaanonan Along Elevational Gradient in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines

Studying leaf trait variation and relationships along elevational gradients will enhance our understanding of how plants respond to changing environmental conditions. Thus, we analyzed the leaf traits variation in ecologically and economically important Parashorea malaanonan and the potential influence of environmental covariables (rainfall, relative humidity, and air temperature) on leaf traits along an elevational gradient in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR). Three sampling sites were selected based on elevation, i.e., low (400–500 masl), mid (500–600 masl), and high (> 600 masl). The leaf samples were collected from seedlings, saplings, and adult trees of P. malaanonan. There was no significant variation in most of the measured leaf traits, leaf area (LA), specific leaf area (SLA), leaf thickness (LT), leaf length-to-width ratio (L:W) across sampling sites, except vein density (VD). The SLA and LT at high elevations are significantly and negatively correlated (r2 = 0.7396). The environmental covariables had a significant (p < 0.05) impact on the leaf traits of P. malaanonan. The observed variation in some leaf traits may have been influenced by the elevation gradient and its associated environmental conditions. Thus, P. malaanonan may have developed adaptive mechanisms to cope with the changing environment. Keywords: conservation, elevational gradients, environmental variables, leaf traits, Parashorea malaanonan

An Agent-Based Model of a Sustainable Forest Operation in a Theoretical Lowland Dipterocarp Forest Modeled after Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines

This study investigates the integration of assisted natural regeneration (ANR) and selective logging (SL) to guarantee a sustainable forest operation in the Philippines using agent-based modeling. To assess the sustainability of the operation in light of the revenue from timber harvesting and the health of the forest in terms of the total number of trees, various simulations were run on a theoretical forest modeled after the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve in the Philippines. The findings of the simulation have shown that, even after many years of continuous use, the performance of SL on a healthy forest similar to the theoretical forest is substantially identical with and without ANR. The “with ANR” setup, however, was able to demonstrate a considerably better and more stable harvest value over the final 100 years than the “without ANR” setup. In terms of ensuring sustainable forest cover, simulation findings showed that even after 500 years of continuous SL activity, the forest cover could be maintained to up to 80% with ANR. The model has shown that with the right combination of reforestation efforts and timber harvesting methods, a sustainable forest operation can contribute to the country’s economic needs for timber production while ensuring that the forest is actively managed.

DEVELOPMENTAL MORPHO-ANATOMY AND GERMINATION OF THE SEEDS OF Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus Willd. VARIANTS

Previous studies on the embryo structure of legumes species had resulted in the division of the Fabaceae family into two great subfamilies based on embryo axis curvature. Research on seed morphology and anatomy adds to the knowledge of taxonomy, evolution and ecology. This study determined the seed developmental anatomy, pod and seed morphology as well as germination characteristics of the observed variants (T1 - small prickles; T2 - medium prickles; T3 - long prickles) of Pterocarpus indicus Willd. f. echinatus locally known as prickly narra in the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR). Based on the anatomy of the root (radicle) and shoot apex, the formation of the leaf primordium in T2 seeds after radicle protrusion was more progressive. It was observed that the germination rate and the percentage were the highest in T2, where the apical dome was welldeveloped. The germination, pod and seed morphological characters as well as seed anatomical characters were proven to be systematically informative by showing significant differences among the variants.

Long-term changes in floristic diversity, composition and stand structure in Acacia auriculiformis plantation in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines

Abstract. Hernandez JO, Ata JP, Combalicer MS. 2022. Long-term changes in floristic diversity, composition and stand structure in Acacia auriculiformis plantation in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines. Biodiversitas 23: 3631-3638. There have been continuous debates about whether exotic tree plantation facilitates vegetation succession. In the Philippines, the potential for the re-establishment of native plant communities and improvement of the plant community structure under exotic tree plantations has not yet been evaluated adequately. Thus, the study investigated the dynamics in floristic diversity, composition and stand structure of a reforested area using Acacia auriculiformis Benth. in Sitio Kay Inglesia, Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR), Philippines. The changes in basal area, stem density, biomass growth, species diversity, species evenness and richness, and canopy closure were determined between two study periods, i.e., 1993-2008 and 2009-2019. Results revealed significant changes in stem density (i.e., 1324 to 2135 trees ha-1) and canopy closure (i.e., 18% to 10%) for mature trees and seedlings/saplings in 2009-2019. The changes in basal area and aboveground biomass were not significant between the two study periods. The species richness was significantly higher in 2009-2019 (i.e., 55 species) than in 1993-2008 (i.e., 22 species). The species diversity also significantly increased from low (i.e., H' = 1.99, S = 23) to moderate (i.e., H' = 2.88, S = 55). Moreover, the number of exotics decreased (i.e., 60 to 40% or 15 to 9 species) as the number of native ones increased (i.e., 27 to 72% or 15 to 40 species). Therefore, the findings of the present study show that re-establishment of native species is possible when restoring degraded land with A. auriculiformis plantation. However, monitoring studies on other key ecosystem attributes (e.g., ecosystem functionality, external exchanges, structural diversity) of the plantation are recommended to enhance our understanding of the species' potential for restoration.

Diversity of Bacteria in Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) from Canopy and Understory of Selected Trees at Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Laguna, Philippines

The Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR) is a biodiversity hotspot and listed as one of the 170 conservation priority areas established by the Philippine government. Its flora and fauna diversity has been reported, but knowledge gap has been identified concerning the bacterial communities associated with the flora and fauna. This study focused on ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), which are dominant in forest canopy and play essential roles in the ecosystem functionality. A metagenomic sequencing approach based on amplified V3–V4 regions of the 16S rRNA was employed to investigate the bacterial communities associated with five arboreal ant species collected from MMFR. The collected ants were identified as Dolichoderus thoracicus, Myrmicaria sp., Colobopsis leonardi, Polyrhachis mindanaensis, and Polyrhachis semiinermis. The sequence analyses revealed that Proteobacteria, Spirochaetes, Firmicutes, Bacteroides, and Actinobacteria were the most abundant phyla. Individual analysis of the bacterial genera associated with the five ant species showed that unclassified members of Rhizobiaceae, Orbaceae, and Burkholderiaceae were dominant in D. thoracicus. Unclassified members of Rhizobiaceae, Spirochaetaceae, and Ruminococcaceae were dominant in Myrmicaria sp. On the other hand, Candidatus Blochmannia, and Wolbachia were abundant in Camponotini ants C. leonardi, P. mindanaensis, and P. semiinermis. Bray-Curtis distance and UPGMA cluster analyses showed that the microbiomes of the Camponotini group clustered together, while D. thoracicus and Myrmicaria sp. exhibited unique bacterial profiles. Predictive gene profile analysis showed that the most functional categories were those associated with metabolism and biosynthesis of amino acids, pathways for metabolism of nucleotide, amino sugars and nitrogen, and utilization of different carbon sources.

Species and functional diversity of macrofungi from protected areas in mountain forest ecosystems of Southern Luzon, Philippines

Fungi and their functions are among the least studied component of the ecosystem such that not more than 10% were named based on global conservative species estimate. In the Philippines, the species described do not reflect on documentation and conservation efforts amidst threat of forest degradation and climate change. This study investigated the current macrofungal diversity in parts of three important protected mountain forest ecosystems in Southern Tagalog Region in the Philippines: Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR), Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal Protected Landscape (MBSCPL), and Quezon Protected Landscape (QPL). Macrofungal sporocarps were collected and documented from selected sites and preserved as voucher specimens. Samples were characterized using morphological, anatomical, and chemical properties then validated field identification from mycological herbarium and consulted experts. Sixteen species representing 11 families with Shannon diversity index of 2.79 were observed from MMFR. Collections from MBSCPL were 35 species under 19 families with Shannon diversity index of 3.14. QPL recorded 21 species from 12 families with Shannon diversity index of 3.04. The diversity of macrofungi from protected areas showed unique species composition based on non-metric multidimensional scaling with high dissimilarity based on Bray–Curtis Index, suggesting possible differences in carbon sink on forest floor. Functional diversity of recorded taxa described a balanced proportion of saprophytic and mycorrhizal fungi with few parasitic fungi having economic and cultural values. Variations in macrofungal species and functions could reflect on the status of protected areas in terms of productivity and sustainability, requiring extensive sampling and monitoring to cover macrofungi in biodiversity assessment and conservation programs in this region of the country.

Tree Composition, Diversity, and Stand Structure of Mid-montane Forest in Sipit Watershed, Mount Makiling Forest Reserve ASEAN Heritage Park, Philippines

This study aimed to establish benchmark data and assess diversity, stand structure, and identify species and habitats that need immediate protection and conservation and monitor ecosystems dynamics through time. A 2-ha long-term ecological research (LTER) plot was established in the mid-montane forest in Sipit Watershed of Mount Makiling Forest Reserve ASEAN Heritage Park (MMFR AHP). Fifty 20 m x 20 m subplots were established from the said 2-ha LTER plot and oriented 100 m north and 200 m east. Trees with diameter at breast height (DBH) of ≥ 10 cm were measured in fifty 20 m x 20 m plots. A total of 1,055 tree individuals belonging to 73 species among 49 genera and 33 families were inventoried. The importance value index (IVI) shows dominant species – namely, Antidesma pleuricum Tul. (40.40), Neolitsea vidalii Merr. (34.14), Palaquium philippense C.B.Rob. (27.77), Micromelum minutum (G.Forst) Wight & Arn. (27.50), and Syzygium barnesii (Merr.) Merr. (16.16). Further, the inventory recorded a total of 11 threatened species thriving in the area and several species suspected to be unique in the area or can only be found abundant therein. The study reveals that the population of P. philippense was maintained intact and preserved within the Sipit Watershed for about a hundred years. Findings also reveal a very high diversity at 3.32 Shannon diversity index with an evenness of 0.28 and relatively high endemism, where 44% (32 species) of the 73 species are endemic. The study is very significant in long-term vegetation dynamics for sustainable management and conservation of protected areas like MMFR AHP, as well as for future research and studies for biodiversity conservation, climate change, and protection of other mountain ecosystems.

Morphological and Leaf Anatomical Characteristics of Different Variants of Narra (Pterocarpus indicus Willd.) Seedlings

Pterocarpus indicus, commonly known as narra, is one of the native leguminous trees in the Philippines that has occupied wide geographic distribution resulting in variability of its morphological and structural characteristics. In this study, the morphological and leaf anatomical features of four P. indicus variants (smooth narra – SN, short prickly narra – PNS, medium prickly narra – PNM, and long prickly narra – PNL) in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR) were characterized. Based on seven morphological parameters, the mean root length, mean leaf number, and mean leaf area significantly separated the two major P. indicus forms. SN has a higher mean leaf number but shorter mean root length and smaller mean leaf area compared to the three variants of prickly narra (PNS, PNM, and PNL). Within the prickly narra (PN) variants, PNS and PNM showed distinct similarities based on six morphological parameters. At the same time, PNL seedlings have higher root-shoot ratio and mean biomass, indicating the greater capacity of this variant to store photosynthate material in its roots. The leaf anatomical parameters confirmed the similar features of two PN variants (PNS and PNM). Furthermore, the SN and PNL were significantly distinguished by the palisade and spongy mesophyll, xylem, and phloem area, where SN was considerably higher in all parameters except in the phloem area. This indicates that SN has a higher photosynthetic rate and has high storage capacity and ease of transport of water and organic matter. Thus, the morphological attributes and anatomical parameters contribute to further differentiating the two major forms of P. indicus.

Angiostrongylus cantonensis infection of non-native rats in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, the Philippines.

A number of studies had been conducted on rat species diversity in the Philippines, however, there is a dearth of information on the extent of Angiostrongylus spp. infection in various ecological niches. Collection of non-native rat samples occurred in various sampling sites categorized as residential, agricultural and agro-forest in Philippine Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR) and its adjacent areas . Three species of non-native rats were captured including Rattus tanezumi, Rattus norvegicus and Rattus exulans. Of the total 90 non-native rats collected, 24.4% were found infected with Angiostrongylus cantonensis. Statistical analysis showed significant difference among rat species with highest prevalence observed in R. exulans (42.9%) followed by R. tanezumi (29.8%) and R. norvegicus (7.7%) (P = 0.047). Angiostrongylus cantonensis infection was significantly higher in adults (29.4%) than in juvenile rats (9.1%) (P = 0.050). However, results showed no significant difference in A. cantonensis infection between male (43.3%) and female (18.3%) rats and between wet (31.6%) and dry seasons (19.2%) (P > 0.05). Moreover, this study also revealed that rats from agricultural and agro-forest areas showed significantly higher prevalence than residential areas. With urbanization and the everchanging landscape of MMFR watersheds and buffer zones, zoonotic transmission can pose health threats to the local people.

Leaf architecture and petiole anatomy of Philippine Dipterocarpus species (Dipterocarpaceae)

The study investigated the leaf architecture and petiole anatomy of eight Dipterocarpus (Dipterocarpaceae) species growing in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR) in the Philippines to delineate the species, especially during their non-flowering phase. Leaf and petiole samples from MMFR were examined following the manual on leaf architecture studies. Freehand technique was used to examine the stomata and petiole characters. A UPGMA phenogram was then generated to determine the relationships among Dipterocarpus species using 26 leaf and petiole characters. The most useful characters to delineate Dipterocarpus species are the presence of trichomes, the arrangement of vascular bundles (medullary and outer vascular bundles), areolation, fimbrial vein, and leaf size. Other characters viz., the laminar ratio, blade class, laminar shape, base shape, margin type, and intersecondary, and layers and shape of parenchyma and collenchyma cells were useful as unifying characters. Therefore, certain characters of the leaf architecture and petiole anatomy may be used as taxonomic markers to delineate and correlate the Dipterocarpus species in the Philippines particularly during the nonflowering phase of the species. However, further investigations using samples from the wild populations of the species and molecular techniques may be done to elucidate the taxonomic use of the characters presented in this study.
 Bangladesh J. Plant Taxon. 27(1): 1-14, 2020 (June)

Histopathological features and prevalence of Capillaria hepatica infection in Rattus spp. in Philippine Mount Makiling forest reserve and its adjacent areas.

Rats are recognized as reservoir hosts of several pathogens that pose a threat to human health. Although rats are reported to be hosts of a large number of pathogens, a survey of Capillaria hepatica carried by rats in various settings such as residential, agroforestry, and agricultural areas in the Philippines has not been conducted. A total of 90 rats composed of Rattus norvegicus, Rattus tanezumi, and Rattus exulans were collected through trapping in selected residential, agroforestry, and agricultural areas in Los Baños Laguna, Philippines. The overall prevalence of C. hepatica among rats was 21.11%. Among the rat species collected, R. norvegicus showed the highest prevalence (55.56%), followed by R. exulans (14.29%), then R. tanezumi (5.36%) (differences significant at p < 0.05). Moreover, residential areas had the highest prevalence of C. hepatica infection (50%), followed by agroforestry and agricultural areas at 6.7% each (significant at p < 0.05). However, the difference in C. hepatica infection between male (11.43%; 4/35) and female (27.27%; 15/55) rats was not significant (p > 0.05). Most of the infected rats were moderately infected (68.42%), while few were lightly and severely infected (15.78% each). Lastly, the presence of C. hepatica in liver is suggestive of presence of lymphocytes, amyloid, granuloma, and the occurrence of necrosis, hypertrophy, fibrosis, and cholestasis in the liver of the host. Capillariasis could be occurring in Philippine human populations, hence there is need for screening the population with appropriate means and to create awareness of this emerging disease.

MODELING SPECIES DISTRIBUTION OF SHOREA GUISO (BLANCO) BLUME AND PARASHOREA MALAANONAN (BLANCO) MERR IN MOUNT MAKILING FOREST RESERVE USING MAXENT

Abstract. Climate change is regarded as one of the most significant drivers of biodiversity loss and altered forest ecosystems. This study aimed to model the current species distribution of two dipterocarp species in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve as well as the future distribution under different climate emission scenarios and global climate models. A machine-learning algorithm based on the principle of maximum entropy (Maxent) was used to generate the potential distributions of two dipterocarp species – Shorea guiso and Parashorea malaanonan. The species occurrence records of these species and sets of bioclimatic and physical variables were used in Maxent to predict the current and future distribution of these dipterocarp species. The variables were initially reduced and selected using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Moreover, two global climate models (GCMs) and climate emission scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) projected to 2050 and 2070 were utilized in the study. The Maxent models predict that suitable areas for P. malaanonan will decline by 2050 and 2070 under RCP4.5 and RCP 8.5. On the other hand, S. guiso was found to benefit from future climate with increasing suitable areas. The findings of this study will provide initial understanding on how climate change affects the distribution of threatened species such as dipterocarps. It can also be used to aid decision-making process to better conserve the potential habitat of these species in current and future climate scenarios.

ANALYZING THE EFFECTS OF LAND COVER CHANGE ON SURFACE TEMPERATURE IN MOUNT MAKILING FOREST RESERVE (MMFR) AND ITS NEIGHBORING MUNICIPALITIES USING LANDSAT DATA

Abstract. Land Surface Temperature (LST) is said to be affected by frequent changes in the land cover. Over the years, the immediate environs of Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR) have experienced such kind of change due to rapid economic growth of the area that also led to the expansion of urban centers. The study utilized Landsat imageries to determine the possible effects of land cover change on surface temperature using the integration of remote sensing and GIS technologies. Initially, the multispectral bands were radiometrically corrected using Dark Object Subtraction (DOS) while the thermal bands were corrected using Land Surface Emissivity (LSE). After these corrections were applied, the images were classified using supervised image classification technique where seven land cover types have been identified. The classified images were then validated using 200 reference data and this revealed an overall accuracy of 87.5% and 86.0% for the May 2003 and July 2015 images, respectively. Results showed that changes in land cover resulted to a significant change in Land Surface Temperature (LST). The LST in 2003 (16.49°C – 40.44°C) was found higher than that of 2015 which was observed between 13.35°C and 33.83°C only. The reason behind this is the increase in green spaces from 2003 to 2015. Among the major land cover types, forest lands exhibited the lowest mean surface temperature for both years having 27.27°C in 2003 and 21.35°C in 2015 while built-up areas had the highest surface temperature having 32.60°C in 2003 and 26.00°C in 2015.

Carbon Sequestration by Large Leaf Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King.) Plantation in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines: A Decade After

The study on monitoring carbon accumulation and sequestration potential of Large Leaf Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King.) plantation in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve was a continuation of the same study conducted in 2000. It aimed to look into the sequestration rate of the plantation after a 10-year period. The study measured the biomass, C and CO2 stored in the aboveground, ground and belowground biomass. It also quantified the rate of C captured with the 2000 study as baseline data. The latest study showed that the plantation has a total biomass production of 1,120 Mg ha-1 which is equivalent to 542 Mg ha-1 of C and 1,989 Mg ha-1 of CO2. Within a 10-year period, it registered a biomass buildup of 43 Mg ha-1 yr-1 and sequestered carbon at 22 Mg ha-1 yr-1 and 81 Mg ha-1 yr-1 of CO2. Its carbon storing capacity surpasses that of an old growth forest, natural stand and other types of vegetation. It can be concluded that the potential of forest plantation to sequester carbon can be maximized given a good-site condition, appropriate silvicultural practices applied, less human disturbances thus allowing the stand to attain its optimum growth as manifested by the plantation studie.

Conservation under Regional Industrialization: Fragmentation and Cover Change in a Forest Reserve

Buffer zones are established along the perimeters of reserves for their protection. The literature is replete with examples of development in buffer zones that have been detrimental to the conservation efforts of the reserve. Barangay Puting Lupa in Calamba City, Philippines is adjacent to Zone 3 of the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR). Despite industrial and settlement development in the periphery, the forest recovered its northwestern sub-watershed, as evidenced by satellite imagery, showing reduced fragmentation. Although the conservation strategy for MMFR changed from settler antagonism to a participative approach, other factors were involved that brought about the possible unassisted forest regrowth. Low density settlement development with corporate social responsibility committed to wildlife conservation; high demand for skilled labor due to rapid regional industrialization and urbanization; an aging corps of original farmers; the high regard of Filipino families for their children’s education for better opportunities in life; and the livelihood preference of family members other than farming in lands with no security of tenure; all combined in an auspicious mix of factors to bring about apparent partial abandonment of farming within Zone 3 of the MMFR and conservation in the buffer zone. The forest recovered, and with decreased fragmentation, indicative of enhanced forest integrity.

Network approach on characterizing floral diversity in the agroforestry zone of Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines

Complex networks have been used to characterize real world systems. The network structure may signify important relationships which may not be evident in other methods of analysis. In this study, we characterize the floral diversity in three study sites in the agroforestry zone of Mount Makiling Forest Reserve using network analysis. Plant species found in each study site are considered as nodes (N). Edges (E) are established to connect species with the same alternate role and habit. The dataset includes N = 157 and E = 4279 for Bagong Silang site, N = 145 and E = 3740 for the Karay site, and N = 122 and E = 2429 for the Magnetic Hill site. Network parameters such as degree, path length, clustering coefficient, modularity and number of connected components were calculated. Obtained values were compared to published diversity index. Results show that lower clustering coefficient and higher average path length signify higher diversity. A higher number of disconnected components also indicates diversity.