Motor Behavior In Children Research Articles

A comparative study on fundamental movement skills among children with autism spectrum disorder and typically developing children aged 7-10.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition with unique differences in social interaction, communication, and a spectrum of behavioral characteristics. In the past, motor disturbance in individuals with ASD has not been considered a significant core deficit due to the predominant focus on sociability and communication issues. However, recent studies indicate that motor deficits are indeed associated with the fundamental symptoms of ASD. As there is limited research on the motor behavior of children with ASD, particularly in China, the objective of this study is to investigate the development of fundamental movement skills (FMS) in children with ASD and compare them to typically developing children. The study recruited 108 children with ASD (87 boys, 21 girls) aged 7-10 years from two special education rehabilitation centers in Wuhan, China. For comparison, a control group of 108 typically developing children, matched by age and gender, was randomly selected from three local primary schools. FMS were assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children - Second Edition (MABC-2), which evaluates manual dexterity, aiming and catching, as well as static and dynamic balance. Group differences on MABC-2 percentile scores were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Mann-Whitney U test. Effect sizes were also calculated for practical significance. Findings from the study showed that a significant majority, around 80%, of children with ASD either displayed motor challenges or were at risk of developing such delays. When comparing to their typically developing peers, children with ASD scored notably lower in areas of manual dexterity, ball skills, and both static and dynamic balance (with all these findings being statistically significant at p < 0.001). Interestingly, gender did not show a significant influence on these results (p > 0.05). In addition to addressing the other skill development areas outlined in the diagnostic manual for ASD, clinicians diagnosing and treating children with ASD should also assess the presence of motor skill development. For individuals with ASD who have co-existing motor difficulties, it is essential to offer evidence-based interventions tailored to their specific needs.

A comparison of statistical methods for age-specific reference values of discrete scales

Age-specific reference values are important in medical science to evaluate the normal ranges of subjects and to help physicians signal potential disorders as early as possible. They are applied to many types of measurements, including discrete measures obtained from questionnaires and clinical tests. These discrete measures are typically skewed to the left and bounded by a maximum score of one (or 100%). This article investigates the performances of various statistical methods, including quantile regression, the Lambda-Mu-Sigma (LMS) method and its extensions, and the generalized additive models for location, scale, and shape with zero and one-inflated distributions implemented with either fractional polynomials or splines, for age-specific reference values on discrete measures. Their large-sample performances were investigated using Monte-Carlo simulations, and the consistency of splines and fractional polynomials age profiles with quantile regression had been demonstrated as well. The advantages and disadvantages of these methods were illustrated with data on the Infant Motor Profile, a test score on motor behavior in children of 3–18 months. We concluded that quantile regression with fractional polynomials approach is a robust and computationally efficient method for setting age-specific reference values for discrete measures.

Using accelerometry for measurement of motor behavior in children: Relationship of real-world movement to standardized evaluation

BackgroundWhen detected, children with asymmetrical motor impairment are referred for therapeutic interventions to maximize the child's ability to reach their health and developmental potential. Referal is dependent on standardized evaluation, which rarely examines upper extremity (UE) function within the context of real-world activity. Accelerometry provides an efficient method to objectively measure movement in children. The purpose of this study was to compare accelerometry to clinical assessment, specifically the Melbourne Assessment of Unilateral Upper Limb Function-2 (MA-2). MethodsA total of 52 children between 1–17 years of age with asymmetrical motor deficits and age matched controls participated in this study. Participants wore bilateral accelerometers for 4 x 25 h. The use ratio (UR) and mono-arm use index (MAUI) were calculated to quantify asymmetrical impairment. The Melbourne Assessment of Unilateral Upper Limb Function-2 (MA-2) was administered and compared to accelerometry variables. ResultsThe UR and MAUI were significantly different in children with and without deficits. The MAUI was significantly correlated with all domains of the MA-2: accuracy (r = 0.44, p = 0.026); fluency (r = 0.52, p = 0.006); dexterity (r = 0.53, p = 0.005); and range of motion (r = 0.49, p = 0.011). ConclusionsOur findings suggest a relationship between real-world movement and clinical evaluation.

Detection of Pediatric Upper Extremity Motor Activity and Deficits With Accelerometry

Affordable, quantitative methods to screen children for developmental delays are needed. Motor milestones can be an indicator of developmental delay and may be used to track developmental progress. Accelerometry offers a way to gather real-world information about pediatric motor behavior. To develop a referent cohort of pediatric accelerometry from bilateral upper extremities (UEs) and determine whether movement can accurately distinguish those with and without motor deficits. Children aged 0 to 17 years participated in a prospective cohort from December 8, 2014, to December 29, 2017. Children were recruited from Ranken Jordan Pediatric Bridge Hospital, Maryland Heights, Missouri, and Washington University School of Medicine in St Louis, St Louis, Missouri. Typically developing children were included as a referent cohort if they had no history of motor or neurological deficit; consecutive sampling and matching ensured equal representation of sex and age. Children with diagnosed asymmetric motor deficits were included in the motor impaired cohort. Bilateral UE motor activity was measured using wrist-worn accelerometers for a total of 100 hours in 25-hour increments. To characterize bilateral UE motor activity in a referent cohort for the purpose of detecting irregularities in the future, total activity and the use ratio between UEs were used to describe typically developing children. Asymmetric impairment was classified using the mono-arm use index (MAUI) and bilateral-arm use index (BAUI) to quantify the acceleration of unilateral movements. A total of 216 children enrolled, and 185 children were included in analysis. Of these, 156 were typically developing, with mean (SD) age 9.1 (5.1) years and 81 boys (52.0%). There were 29 children in the motor impaired cohort, with mean (SD) age 7.4 (4.4) years and 16 boys (55.2%). The combined MAUI and BAUI (mean [SD], 0.86 [0.005] and use ratio (mean [SD], 0.90 [0.008]) had similar F1 values. The area under the curve was also similar between the combined MAUI and BAUI (mean [SD], 0.98 [0.004]) and the use ratio (mean [SD], 0.98 [0.004]). Bilateral UE movement as measured with accelerometry may provide a meaningful metric of real-world motor behavior across childhood. Screening in early childhood remains a challenge; MAUI may provide an effective method for clinicians to measure and visualize real-world motor behavior in children at risk for asymmetrical deficits.

Affordances for Motor Skill Development in Home, School, and Sport Environments: A Narrative Review

Through development, a child's varied movement contexts provide different opportunities or affordances for action that are fundamental to promoting motor competence. Although home is the primary environment for infants, as children age, school and sport environments gain importance. Studies focusing on affordances for motor behavior in children have mainly addressed the home microsystem, providing an incomplete picture of affordances across different settings, particularly later in development. Here, we undertook a narrative literature review of various affordances for children's motor development. This review revealed that prior studies of school and sports contexts have not specifically focused on those environmental properties that promote or hinder motor learning opportunities, meaning that future research should assess these relationships through manipulations of environmental features in these different microsystems.

Navigating through apertures: perceptual judgements and actions of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder.

Passing through a narrow gap/aperture involves a perceptual judgement regarding the size of the gap and an action to pass through. Children with DCD are known to have difficulties with perceptual judgements in near space but whether this extends to far space is unknown. Furthermore, in a recent study it was found that adults with DCD do not scale movements when walking through an aperture in the same way as their peers. The current study, therefore, considered perceptual judgements and motor behaviour of children with DCD while looking at or walking through apertures. Twenty‐nine children with DCD and 29 typically developing (TD) children took part. In Experiment 1, participants completed a perceptual task, where they made passability judgements. Children with DCD showed a significantly smaller critical ratio (aperture size at which a participant first rotates the shoulders to pass through) compared to their TD peers. In Experiment 2, participants completed an action task where they walked through the same apertures. Children with DCD showed a significantly larger critical ratio than TD peers when body size alone was accounted for. Taken together these results suggest that perception within a static context is different from that within a dynamic context for children with DCD. However, despite this difference we have demonstrated a clear relationship between perception and action in children with DCD. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at: https://youtu.be/SABXFrAJtF8

Walking in School-Aged Children in a Dual-Task Paradigm Is Related to Age But Not to Cognition, Motor Behavior, Injuries, or Psychosocial Functioning.

Age-dependent gait characteristics and associations with cognition, motor behavior, injuries, and psychosocial functioning were investigated in 138 typically developing children aged 6.7–13.2 years (M = 10.0 years). Gait velocity, normalized velocity, and variability were measured using the walkway system GAITRite without an additional task (single task) and while performing a motor or cognitive task (dual task). Assessment of children’s cognition included tests for intelligence and executive functions; parents reported on their child’s motor behavior, injuries, and psychosocial functioning. Gait variability (an index of gait regularity) decreased with increasing age in both single- and dual-task walking. Dual-task gait decrements were stronger when children walked in the motor compared to the cognitive dual-task condition and decreased with increasing age in both dual-task conditions. Gait alterations from single- to dual-task conditions were not related to children’s cognition, motor behavior, injuries, or psychosocial functioning.

Young Children's Motor Interference Is Influenced by Novel Group Membership.

From early childhood onward, individuals use behavior copying to communicate liking and belonging. This non-verbal signal of affiliation is especially relevant in the context of social groups and indeed both children and adults copy in-group more than out-group members. Given the societal importance of inter-group interactions, it is imperative to understand the mechanistic level at which group modulations of copying occur early in development. The current study was designed to investigate the effect of novel group membership on young children’s motor behavior during a simultaneous movement-observation and -execution task. Four- to six-year-olds (n = 65) first gained membership to one of two novel groups based on their color preference and put on a vest in their chosen color. Subsequently, they were instructed to draw a straight line back-and-forth on a tablet computer that was concurrently displaying a stimulus video in which a model moved her arm congruently or incongruently to the child’s instructed direction. In half of the stimulus videos the model belonged to the in-group, while in the other half the model belonged to the out-group, as identified by the color of her dress. The deviations into the uninstructed direction of the children’s drawings were quantified as a measure of how much observing the models’ behaviors interfered with executing their own behaviors. The motor interference effect, namely higher deviations in the incongruent trials than in the congruent trials, was found only for the out-group condition. An additional manipulation of whether the models’ arms followed a biological or non-biological velocity profile had little effect on children’s motor interference. The results are interpreted in the context of the explicit coordinative nature of the task as an effect of heightened attention toward interacting with an out-group member. This study demonstrates that already during early childhood, novel group membership dynamically influences behavior processing as a function of interaction context.

Age and gender differences in fundamental motor skills (original version in English)

Fundamental motor skills are the basis for participation in more advanced lifetime activities. Whereas considerable research has been reported on motor behavior of children, much less is known about performance in later years, especially adulthood. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine age and gender differences on fundamental motor skills (FMS) ability across three age groups: children (M = 9.37 yr., SD = 1.26), adolescents (M = 14.80 yr., SD = 2.04) and young-adults (M = 19.88 yr., SD = 2.72). Participants (n = 114) were assessed on five locomotor skills (run, gallop, slide, hop, and distance jump) and five object control skills (bounce, catch, overhand throw, strike and kick) using the Test for Fundamental Motor Skills, which is a process-oriented instrument. ANOVA results comparing gender and group revealed no significant interactions. Moreover, main effects for group were found for three individual skills: galloping –adolescents and young-adults performed better than children (p &lt; .01)–, throwing –children and adolescents performed better than young-adults (p &lt; .01) –, and kicking –young-adults performed better than children and adolescents (p &lt; .05)–. Also, we found main effects for gender for total FMS ability (p &lt; .01), locomotor subscale (p &lt; .05) and object control subscale (p &lt; .01), and for six individual motor skills: run (p &lt; .05), jump (p &lt; .05), throw (p &lt; .01), kick (p &lt; .01), bounce (p &lt; .01) and strike (p &lt; .01); males outperformed females for all the skills. However, in view of total FMS ability, locomotor skills and object control skills results suggest similar performance across ages. Therefore, it is important to enhance fundamental motor skills at all ages, as an option to help individuals engage in physical activities.

Avaliação do Comportamento Motor em Crianças com Transtorno do Espectro do Autismo: uma Revisão Sistemática

RESUMOObjetivou-se analisar por meio de revisão sistemática da literatura evidências de pesquisas que apresentem instrumentos de avaliação do comportamento motor em crianças com transtorno do espectro do autismo. Tratou-se de uma revisão sistemática, tendo como critérios de inclusão: artigos originais, do tipo pesquisa de campo, sem determinação cronológica. As buscas foram feitas no Lilacs, PubMed, Scielo, Google Acadêmico e Periódicos CAPES, utilizando-se os descritores: Transtorno autístico, Atividade Motora, Educação Física e Teste. Encontrou-se 3.164 textos na busca inicial, selecionando-se 06 que preencheram os critérios estabelecidos. Observou-se que as publicações sobre o assunto ainda são limitadas, visto que se evidenciou a necessidade de instrumentos específicos para avaliação do comportamento motor em tal público. Referente à credibilidade dos instrumentos encontrados, ficou claro a preocupação dos autores com instrumentos que sejam adequados à população, apesar da limitação no que tange à construção e validação de instrumentos que se detenham exclusivamente à avaliação do comportamento motor desses indivíduos, visto que são crianças que tem as funções de desenvolvimento afetadas e sua etiologia ainda é pouco conhecida. Por fim, há necessidade de estudos que abordem especificamente instrumentos com tais características, tendo uma maneira direcionada de intervir para a melhoria do comportamento motor de tal população.

Concurrent validation of the MABC-2 Motor Tests and MABC-2 Checklist according to the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire-BR

The Movement Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd Ed (MABC-2), comprised of motor tests and a questionnaire (Checklist), has been used by several nationalities to identify problems in children's motor behavior. However, the level of agreement between the motor tests and the checklist has been questioned. So, this study aimed to test the level of competition between the MABC-2 motor test and MABC-2 Checklist, controlled by the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ-BR) as the gold reference. Parents of 40 children and 16 teachers responded to the MABC-2 Checklist and the DCDQ-BR. Later 40 children were evaluated using the MABC-2 motor test. No significant congruence among a comparison of the MABC-2 motor tests, MABC-2 Checklist and DCDQ-BR was observed. The results indicated that there is no concurrent validity between the MABC-2 motor tests and the DCDQ-BR test, whereas the MABC-2 Checklist showed low levels of concurrent validity with the DCDQ-BR.

From Movement to Thought: The Development of Executive Function

This article presents a very simple definition of executive functioning (EF). Although EF is traditionally understood as a cognitive function dependent upon top-down cortical control, we challenge this model. We propose that the functional architecture of the brain evolved to meet the needs of interactive behavior and that cognition develops to control the motor system, which is of paramount importance in adaptation, essentially a manifestation of EF. We propose that traditional models of cognition are incomplete characterizations of EF and that procedural learning and “automatic” behaviors are the most basic, bottom-up functions that support all EF. We propose that motor development in children demonstrates how all knowledge is grounded in sensorimotor interaction and how interactive behavior generates both procedural and declarative knowledge, which later interact to generate EF. This model emphasizes the critical importance of motor behavior in children and stresses the importance of the pediatric motor examination in understanding the development of EF. This model also has implications for why traditional tests of EF have little predictive validity in both children and adults.

Neuromagnetic Activity of the Somatosensory Cortices Associated With Body Weight–Supported Treadmill Training in Children With Cerebral Palsy

It has been previously shown that body weight-supported treadmill training (BWSTT) can improve the walking performance of children with cerebral palsy (CP). Potentially, the sensorimotor experience from BWSTT may facilitate reorganization of the brain areas that are involved in the control of the stepping pattern. We explored whether BWSTT has the potential to promote parallel changes in the motor behavior of children with CP and the activity of the somatosensory cortices. Four children with spastic diplegic CP (age = 13.7 ± 2 years; 3 males and 1 female) who had Gross Motor Function Classification Scores that ranged from III to IV participated in this investigation. The body weight-supported treadmill training was performed twice a week for 6 weeks. Magnetoencephalography brain imaging was used to determine whether the amplitudes of the early latency somatosensory cortical responses changed after BWSTT. Motor behavioral outcomes included changes in walking speed, walking endurance, and lower extremity strength. The neuromagentic source amplitudes were attenuated after BWSTT and were accompanied by faster walking speeds and improved lower extremity strengths. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIOINS: These preliminary findings suggest that the BWSTT sensorimotor experience may result in neuroeconomical changes that reduce cortical processing demands in children with CP. Furthermore, these neuroplastic changes may be related to the parallel changes in the walking performance and lower extremity strength of children with CP.

Coativação, espasticidade, desempenho motor e funcional na paralisia cerebral

O objetivo deste estudo foi verificar a associação entre a coativação muscular durante a marcha, a espasticidade, as habilidades funcionais e a função motora ampla em crianças com paralisia cerebral (PC) e comparar estes parâmetros com os de crianças com desenvolvimento típico (DT). Participaram do estudo 16 crianças com DT e 23 com PC. Os instrumentos clínicos utilizados foram: a Escala Modificada de Ashworth para espasticidade, o Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory para habilidades funcionais, o Gross Motor Function Measure para função motora ampla. A ativação dos músculos reto femoral e semitendíneo foi analisada durante o ciclo de marcha por meio do cálculo do Índice de Coativação (IC). As medidas de habilidades funcionais e motricidade ampla apresentaram associação entre si, sendo bons indicadores de alterações motoras. O IC não parece ser um bom parâmetro para indicar ções na função motora em crianças com PC de severidade mínima.

Neurofacilitation of Developmental Reaction (NFDR) Approach: A Practice Framework for Integration / Modification of Early Motor Behavior (Primitive Reflexes) in Cerebral Palsy

A Randomized Controlled trial was done on 30 (CP) children of age range 6 mon to 2 y with an objective to see the efficacy of Neurofacilitation of Developmental Reaction (NFDR) approach over Neurodevelopmental Therapy (NDT) for integration / modification of early motor behavior (Primitive Reflexes) in Cerebral Palsy (CP). The baseline evaluation was done for tone, postural reactions and GMFM. The subjects were randomly allocated to two groups. With group A, NFDR and group B, conventional approach (NDT) was used for 3 mon followed by re-evaluation. Between groups analysis was done and p value was found to be significant. It was concluded that NFDR approach is more effective than NDT for integration / modification of early motor behavior in children with CP.

Age, handedness, and sex contribute to fine motor behavior in children

The original rotor pursuit test requires that the subject attempts to keep a metal stylus in contact with a small metal disk that was placed in the surface of a turntable that rotated at a constant speed. The present study evaluated the Psychology Experiment Building Language (PEBL) pursuit rotor task. Children (N=427, ages 9–13, 44.4% females) completed a handedness inventory followed by four pursuit rotor trials with each hand. The total time on target increased with age with the dominant as well as non-dominant hands. A small, but significant, sex difference favoring males was also observed. Dextrals spent more time on target than sinistrals with their dominant hand but the reverse pattern was observed for the non-dominant hand. These group differences were independent of prior computer experience. These findings indicate that the freely downloadable PEBL pursuit rotor task is a useful measure of psychomotor function (http://pebl.sf.net) in children and adolescents.

Random perturbation: A potential aid in treatment of children with cerebral palsy

Background and purpose. The motor behaviour of children with cerebral palsy (CP) can be viewed in terms of a stable mode with very little flexibility that prevents adaptation to tasks. We hypothesized that the use of random perturbations (RP) would weaken excessive stability, introduce flexibility and enhance the effects of physical treatment. The objective was to evaluate the contribution of RP to gross motor function and mechanical efficiency (MEg) during intensive physiotherapy in children with CP.Methods. A convenience sample of 20 children with CP (mean age 8.2, range: 5.9 – 12.9 yrs) were matched by age and GMFCS level, and randomly assigned to structured intensive treatment (SIT) or to SIT + RP groups. Groups received one month of daily treatment. RP was applied by engine-induced random passive cycling for upper and lower limbs for up to 10 min in a 90-min treatment session. Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM)-66 and gross mechanical efficiency (MEg) during stair climbing (MEg) were measured before and after treatment.Results. GMFM-66 scores increased by about 1.0 in both groups. However, external work and MEg increased significantly more in SIT + RP than SIT. The increase in MEg in SIT + RP was independent of the level of motor function at baseline.Conclusion. The addition of RP in treatment of children with CP may have weakened previously established stereotypical motor patterns and introduced flexibility, thereby improving mechanical efficiency of a complex motor task. RP may enhance the effects of intensive treatment.

Early motor assessment in very preterm born infants as predictor of performance at 5.5 years

The aim of the study was to relate motor outcome in very low birth weight (VLBW) infants at 5.5 years to motor performance at 5 months with special emphasis on children with poor motor performance at 5.5 years and children diagnosed with cerebral palsy (CP). A modified version of the Motor Assessment of Infants (MAI) was used at the corrected age of 5 months, and at 5.5 years the children's motor behaviour was followed up using the Movement ABC. Significant differences in motor behaviour of children who at 5.5 years developed normal, borderline or poor motor behaviour were seen at 5 months. In general, motor behaviours at 5 months and 5.5 years correlated. Only volitional movements, however, could predict motor outcome at 5.5 years. Within the group of children with “poor” motor performance, children with CP were recognized by a significantly higher score on the tone items of the MAI.

Analyses of gait, reaching, and grasping in children after traumatic brain injury

Kuhtz-Buschbeck JP, Stolze H, G[ouml ]lge M, Ritz A. Analyses of gait, reaching, and grasping in children after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003;84:424-30. Objective: To evaluate motor behavior in children after traumatic brain injury (TBI) with quantitative instrumented measures of gait and of functional hand movements (reaching, grasping) and with clinical assessments. Design: Case-control study. Setting: Tertiary pediatric trauma rehabilitation center in Germany. Participants: Twenty children (age range, 6[ndash ]13y) with moderate or severe TBI were examined 1[plusmn]1.2 years (mean [plusmn] standard deviation) postinjury. Fifteen were reexamined 2 months later. Control data were obtained from 20 healthy children and matched for age, gender, and school grade. Interventions: Not applicable Main Outcome Measures: Quantitative measures included 10 spatiotemporal gait parameters and 6 variables describing reaching and grasping. Qualitative scores of gait and upper-limb movements were also obtained. Results: Gait velocity and step and stride lengths were significantly smaller in children after TBI than in control subjects (Mann-Whitney U test, P[lt ].05). Reach-to-grasp movements of the TBI children were characterized by a significantly longer reaction time (Mann-Whitney U test, P[lt ].05) and movement duration, reduced velocity, and coordination deficits. The instrumented measures did not change significantly in 2 months. Several significant correlations between clinical and instrumented measures were obtained. Conclusion: Functional motor behavior is affected in children after moderate or severe TBI. To supplement clinical assessments with objective data, impairments of gait, reaching, and grasping movements can be recorded with instrumented measures. [copy ] 2003 by the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine and the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation

Early brain damage and the development of motor behavior in children: clues for therapeutic intervention?

The Neuronal Group Selection Theory (NGST) could offer new insights into the mechanisms directing motor disorders, such as cerebral palsy and developmental coordination disorder. According to NGST, normal motor development is characterized by two phases of variability. Variation is not at random but determined by criteria set by genetic information. Development starts with the phase of primary variability,during which variation in motor behavior is not geared to external conditions. At function-specific ages secondary variability starts, during which motor performance can be adapted to specific situations. In both forms, of variability, selection on the basis of afferent information plays a significant role. From the NGST point of view, children with pre- or perinatally acquired brain damage, such as children with cerebral palsy and part of the children with developmental coordination disorder, suffer from stereotyped motor behavior, produced by a limited repertoire or primary (sub)cortical neuronal networks. These children also have roblems in selecting the most efficient neuronal activity, due to deficits in the processing of sensory information. Therefore, NGST suggests that intervention in these children at early age should aim at an enlargement of the primary neuronal networks. With increasing age, the emphasis of intervention could shift to the provision of ample opportunities for active practice, which might form a compensation for the impaired selection.