Motivational Imagery Research Articles

Imagining Success: Psychology in Rhythmic Gymnastics and Beyond

The purpose of this study was to investigate the differences in the types of imagery employed by athletes in performance sports, with a specific focus on the hypothesis that athletes in these sports would utilize general mastery motivational imagery more frequently than other types. The study aimed to emphasize both objective difficulty techniques and subjective art and implementation aspects. The findings supported the hypothesis, indicating that athletes in performance sports indeed employed general mastery motivational imagery more frequently than other types. The essential elements of the study, highlighting the methodology involving descriptive statistics and single-factor repeated quantitative analysis of variance. The demographic variables and imagery types investigated are delineated, providing a comprehensive overview of the research scope. The emphasis on participant autonomy, anonymity, and the absence of correct responses underscores the ethical considerations, fostering an environment of openness and honesty in responding. The concise and informative abstract serves as a succinct preview of the study's design, methods, and participant guidelines. Keywords: Rhythmic Gymnastics, Imagery, Psychological, Athletes, SPSS.

Cue exposure for alcohol use disorders: A commentary on Kiyak et al. (2023)

While cue exposure therapy (CET) gives similar effects to cognitive-behavior therapies (CBTs) for Alcohol Use Disorder, it does not consistently add to effects of CBT alone. If the non-random trial of Nattala, Murthy, Leung, Rentala and Ramakrishna (2018) is omitted from the systematic review and meta-analysis of Kiyak, Simonetti, Norton and Deluca (2023), even average effects against less stringent controls are not substantial. Some trials have used sub-optimal versions of CET, but effects of CET are also constrained by the fact that many alcohol dependent patients do not exhibit strong craving. In vivo coping skills practice in the presence of powerful alcohol cues remains a viable treatment, especially if a key focus is on skills with wide situational application rather than solely on habituation. Multisensory motivational imagery for alcohol control represents one such strategy.

Applied imagery for motivation: a person-centred model

ABSTRACT Motor imagery when coupled with motivational and cognitive factors has been shown to enhance multiple aspects of sports performance. This paper reviews existing imagery approaches, and proposes a method based on applied applications, intended to increase short and long-term motivation. Behavioural change is achieved by primarily using motivational interviewing (MI), then functional imagery training (FIT), which has been adapted into the applied imagery for motivation (AIM) model. AIM starts with an initial interview using MI, then has three imagery phases: macro imagery (beliefs, values and purposeful long-term goal), meso-imagery (mentally contrasting between current and future-self to evoke change), and micro imagery (planning for immediate action). We explain the use of these three stages which allow athletes to link everyday cues with imagery activation and immediate implementation action plans. We provide practitioners with a comprehensive applied guide to using AIM for performance, merging theory-driven established cognitive and motivational imagery approaches into structured practise.

Novel rewards occlude the reward positivity, and what to do about it

Both the Reward Positivity (RewP) and the novelty N2 component appear within the same spatio-temporal window. This signal overlap impedes the assessment of the RewP evoked by complex novel rewards like affective or motivational imagery. Here we conducted a series of experiments which successfully isolated signals of reward and novelty through spectral decomposition as well as with experimental manipulations that systematically removed the influence of novelty on the reward-evoking image. Together, these findings help explain the nature of this component overlap and provide methodological and analytic techniques for isolating reward- and novelty-specific computations to complex stimuli.

Mental imagery as a “motivational amplifier” to promote activities

Facilitating engagement in rewarding activities is a key treatment target in depression. Mental imagery can increase engagement in planned behaviours, potentially due to its special role in representing emotionally salient experiences. The present study tested the hypothesis that mental imagery promotes motivation and engagement when planning pleasant and rewarding activities. Participants were recruited from a community volunteer panel (N = 72). They self-nominated six activities to complete over the following week, and were randomized to either: a) a single-session Motivational Imagery condition (N = 24); b) an Activity Reminder control condition (N = 24); or c) a No-Reminder control condition (N = 24). As predicted, relative to control groups, the Motivational Imagery group reported higher levels of motivation, anticipated pleasure, and anticipated reward for the planned activities. The Motivational Imagery group also completed significantly more activities than the Activity Reminder group, but not more than the No-Reminder group. Relevance of results to behavioural activation approaches for depression are discussed.

Imagery use for injured adolescent athletes: Applied recommendations

As the rate of injury in young athletes continues to rise, it is imperative to find ways to mentally and physically help athletes return to their sport. One such way is imagery. Imagery, which is creating or recreating an experience in one’s mind, has been found to impact athletes’ cognitive (e.g., self-efficacy), behavioral (e.g., speed of recovery), and emotional (e.g., anxiety) outcomes. Previous researchers have found injured athletes use cognitive and motivational imagery, as well as healing and pain management imagery. This article focuses on the imagery in sport injury rehabilitation literature. Further, using an ACL injury as the exemplar, specific examples for each type of imagery (and the functions they may serve) as well as best practices for a young athletes’ imagery use during rehabilitation are presented.

Application of PETTLEP Imagery and Motivational Imagery Type: A Case Study on Senior High School Archers

Application of PETTLEP Imagery and Motivational Imagery Type: A Case Study on Senior High School Archers

Imagery as a Skill: Longitudinal Analysis of Changes in Motivational Imagery

Imagery intervention research indicates that athletes improve their imagery skill through practice. As a skill, imagery is expected to improve over time only if athletes increase their use of imagery (i.e., engage in imagery practice). Forty-four track-and-field athletes striving for selection to national games completed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire to assess imagery use and the Motivational Imagery Ability Measure to assess imagery ability. The athletes completed the measures three times within 13 months prior to the games. Although cognitive general imagery use increased over time, paired t-tests indicated that there were no other significant changes across the functions of imagery use. For motivational imagery ability, there were minimal changes from Time 1 to Time 3 indicating the athletes’ motivational imagery ability remained relatively stable. These results add support for targeted imagery interventions as athletes do not spontaneously or independently begin to increase their use of imagery; athletes need purposeful interventions to realize improvements in imagery skills.

The effect of an imagery training intervention on self-confidence and anxiety in acrobatic gymnastics

Background: Acrobatics is a discipline within gymnastics which lacks empirical research in relation to psychological skills training. Due to the different mixes of gender, age and number of gymnasts working in each partnership, the psychological pressure for acrobats could be higher than gymnasts who train and compete on their own. Research conducted in other aesthetic sports have proposed imagery training for elevating self-confidence and controlling anxiety levels yet there is no evidence on the use of imagery training in acrobatic gymnastics. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of an imagery intervention on acrobatic performance, self-confidence and anxiety in acrobatic gymnastics.Methods: Twenty-one acrobatic gymnasts (mean age=13.7 years) completed a demographic questionnaire, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 and the Sport Imagery Questionnaire prior to performing their competitive routine for baseline measures. Within their competitive partnerships, they were randomly-assigned to the control group (n=8) who continued with their physical training and the imagery training group(n=11) who completed 2 imagery scripts a week for 4 weeks. The same measures were taken post intervention.Results: Repeated measures ANOVAs were used to examine changes in acrobatic performance, levels of self-confidence and anxiety. The imagery intervention significantly increased acrobat’s self-confidence compared to the control (F₁ˏ₁₇= 14.18, p= .002), however; imagery did not significantly reduce cognitive anxiety (F₁ˏ₁₇= 1.96, p> .05, η²= .10) or somatic anxiety (F₁ˏ₁₇= .92, p> .05, η²= .35). The in-between group comparisons revealed no significant changes in acrobatic performance. There was a significant main effect of time in the intervention group for the targeted imagery functions- motivational general arousal imagery (F₁ˏ₁₇= 7.16, p= .02, η²= .30) and motivational general-mastery imagery (F₁ˏ₁₇=5.16, p= .04, η²= .23).Discussion: The current study was the first to explore the effects of an imagery training intervention in acrobatic gymnasts which sets a foundation for future research. Acrobatic gymnasts should adopt a 4 week imagery training programme in practice and competition in order to enhance their self-confidence, but not to reduce anxiety or improve performance scores. Further research is required to identify the effect of an increased duration imagery intervention in acrobatic gymnastics which follow a more intense and consistent programme.

Interrelations of Imagery Use, Imagery Ability, and Performance in Young Athletes

The present study aimed to provide a better understanding of the relationship between imagery use, imagery ability, the interrelation between these two constructs, and athletic performance for young athletes. Participants were 80 gymnasts between 7 and 16 years of age. We assessed 5 different functions of imagery use and imagery ability regarding cognitive and motivational imagery. Cognitive specific imagery use, motivational general-mastery imagery use, and goal imagery ability significantly predicted performance at competition, independent of the athletes’ age. Consequently, it is useful to support young athletes’ imagery use and imagery ability systematically in order to improve their learning processes and sports performance.

Examining the relationship between athletes' achievement goal orientation and ability to employ imagery

ObjectiveImagery ability may be cognitively regulated by motivational states, thus it is important to determine the relationship between goal orientations and imagery ability. Design/Method: Participants were 272 male and female athletes, representing nine sports. Goal orientations and cognitive and motivational imagery abilities were assessed via questionnaires. Task and ego goal orientations were examined via a two-step cluster analysis procedure, resulting in the identification of four goal orientation clusters. Separate multivariate analyses were conducted to assess differences in cognitive imagery ability and motivational imagery ability for the clusters, with gender and sport type entered as covariates. Results: For cognitive imagery ability, gender had a significant effect for athletes with low task/low ego orientation; female athletes rated their internal imagery perspective as clearer and more vivid. Regarding motivational imagery ability, when sport type was controlled for, cluster membership demonstrated a significant multivariate effect. Goal orientations have a relationship with motivational imagery ability but this same relationship was not evident with cognitive imagery ability. Athletes with high task/high ego or high task/low ego goal orientations scored significantly higher on their ability to feel emotions and their ease of generating motivational general-mastery images compared to athletes with low task/high ego or low task/low ego orientations. No differences between goal orientation clusters were found for motivational general-arousal imagery ability. Conclusion: Athletes who have a high task orientation are very motivated and have an easy time forming mastery images and a high ability to experience the emotion of these images.

Effects of PETTLEP Imagery and Motivational Imagery on Improving the Mental Quality of a Hurdler

The purpose of this study was to examine how the PETTLEP imagery combined with MG-M and MG-A motivational imagery could improve the self-confidence, anxiety and positive emotions of a hurdler. The PETTLEP imagery is a newly developed imagery approach which can generate an imagery effect as the ＂model of functional equivalence＂ proposed. A female college hurdler whose best record was 15.59 seconds was participated in this study. We used a single case A-B design for the experiment. During the first 5-week (phase-A), self-confidence, state anxiety and emotions of the participant were assessed for 10 times without imagery intervention. In the intervention (phase-B), participant was trained twice per week for 5-week with PETTLEP imagery combined with MG-M and MG-A imagery. During intervention, changes in dependent variables of participant were observed. Before participation, experimenter explained about the study to the participant and completed 3 questionnaires. Furthermore, to validate the intervention, participant was asked to complete the imagery journal and a social validation questionnaire after intervention. This study used visual analysis and C statistics for the data analyses. Results found that intervention effectively enhanced the self-confidence and positive emotions of participant, and decreased anxiety status. We conclude that that the combination of PETTLEP imagery and motivational imagery can effectively improve the mental quality of a hurdler.

The applied model of imagery use: Examination of moderation and mediation effects.

The applied model of mental imagery use proposed an interaction effect between imagery type and imagery ability. This study had two aims: (a) the examination of imagery ability as a moderating variable between imagery type and dispositional flow, and (b) the testing of alternative mediation models. The sample consisted of 367 athletes from Scotland and Australia, who completed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire, Sport Imagery Ability Questionnaire, and Dispositional Flow Scale-2. Hierarchical regression analysis showed direct effects of imagery use and imagery ability on flow, but no significant interaction. Mediation analysis revealed a significant indirect path, indicating a partially mediated relationship (P = 0.002) between imagery use, imagery ability, and flow. Partial mediation was confirmed when the effect of cognitive imagery use and cognitive imagery ability was tested, and a full mediation model was found between motivational imagery use, motivational imagery ability, and flow. The results are discussed in conjunction with potential future research directions on advancing theory and applications.

Athletes’ imagery use from a team-level perspective and team cohesion

While a positive relationship has been established between imagery and team-level constructs (e.g. collective-efficacy and cohesion), those studies have examined imagery from an individual-level perspective (e.g. “I imagine myself being mentally tough”). Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to explore the relationship of athlete imagery use from a team-level perspective to team cohesion. Interdependent sport team athletes (N = 284) completed the Group Environment Questionnaire in order to measure team cohesion, and the Sport Imagery Questionnaire-Team Sport which was modified from the original Sport Imagery Questionnaire to assess the frequency of athlete's imagery use from a team-level perspective. Multiple regression analysis revealed that motivation general-mastery imagery was significantly related to the cohesion dimensions of group integration-task (21%), individual attractions to the group-task (11%), and individual attractions to the group-social (13%). Findings suggest that motivational imagery from a team-level perspective should be emphasised on sport teams in order to increase team cohesion.

Public speaking in front of an unreceptive audience increases implicit power motivation and its endocrine arousal signature

The present study explored the motivational characteristics of the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST; Kirschbaum, Pirke, & Hellhammer, 1993). Seventy-two participants either completed the public-speaking component of the TSST or, as a control condition, the friendly TSST (Wiemers, Schoofs, & Wolf, 2013) and wrote picture stories both before and after treatment. Stories were coded for motivational imagery related to power, achievement, and affiliation as well as for activity inhibition, a marker of functional brain lateralization during stress. The TSST had a specific arousing effect on power motivation, but not on other motivational needs, on activity inhibition, or on story length. TSST-elicited increases in power imagery, but not in achievement or affiliation imagery, were associated with a relatively greater salivary alpha-amylase response and with a relatively lesser salivary cortisol response. These findings suggest that the TSST specifically induces power-related stress.

An imagery-based road map to tackle maladaptive motivation in clinical disorders.

There is now a widespread recognition of the importance of mental imagery in a range of clinical disorders (1). This provides the potential for a transdiagnostic route to integrate some aspects of these disorders and their treatment within a common framework. This opinion piece argues that we need to understand why imagery is such a central and recurring feature, if we are to progress theories of the origin and maintenance of disorders. This will aid us in identifying therapeutic techniques that are not simply targeting imagery as a symptom, but as a manifestation of an underlying problem. As papers in this issue highlight, imagery is a central feature across many clinical disorders, but has been ascribed varying roles. For example, the involuntary occurrence of traumatic memories is a diagnostic criterion for PTSD (2), and it has been suggested that multisensory imagery of traumatic events normally serves a functional role in allowing the individual to reappraise the situation (3), but that this re-appraisal is disabled by extreme affective responses. In contrast to the disabling flashbacks associated with PTSD, depressed adults who experience suicidal ideation often report “flash forward” imagery related to suicidal acts (4), motivating them to self-harm. Socially anxious individuals who engage in visual imagery about giving a talk in public become more anxious and make more negative predictions about future performance than others who engage in more abstract, semantic processing of the past event (5). People with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) frequently report imagery of past adverse events, and imagery seems to be associated with severity (6). The content of intrusive imagery has been related to psychotic symptoms (7), including visual images of the catastrophic fears associated with paranoia and persecution. Imagery has been argued (8) to play a role in the maintenance of psychosis through negative appraisals of imagined voices, misattribution of sensations to external sources, by the induction of negative mood states that trigger voices, and through maintenance of negative schemas. In addiction and substance dependence, Elaborated Intrusion (EI) Theory (9, 10) emphasizes the causal role that imagery plays in substance use, through its role in motivating an individual to pursue goals directed toward achieving the pleasurable outcomes associated with substance use. In this opinion piece, we would like to put forward the proposition that the motivating role that imagery plays in behavior may be a key reason for its presence in this wide range of psychopathologies, and that understanding its motivating role can help us identify common features in disorders and their treatments. It has already been recognized that the link between imagery and affect gives imagery a causative role in affective disorders (11), with the emotional amplifier hypothesis suggesting that in bipolar and anxiety disorders, state-congruent imagery leads to further affective responses, in a vicious cycle. Within EI Theory, the affective consequences of imagery are also used to explain why a cycle of elaboration follows an initial intrusive thought. The intrusive thoughts themselves are seen as the product of associative processes relating to both environmental cues and cognitions. Previous work on EI Theory focused initially on desires, and then on motivation in general. Our suggestion here moves a step further, highlighting its potential relevance to dysfunctional motivational imagery in multiple disorders.

The Effect of Imagery Type on Self-Efficacy for Discrete and Continuous Soccer Skills

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of cognitive specific and motivational general-mastery imagery on self-efficacy for discrete and continuous skills in 12-14 years old learners. Four soccer teams from soccer Academies were selected (age: 12.85±0.45 years). Comparing penalty and dribbling self-efficacy before and after eight weeks of cognitive specific imagery for dribble, cognitive specific imagery for penalty and motivational imagery general – mastery with control group, did not show a significant difference. Imagery instructions may be age appropriate. The use of mental imagery in the 12-14 years participants should be used with caution and under the supervision of expert Sport Psychologists.

Imagery Intervention to Increase Flow State and Performance in Competition

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of an imagery intervention for enhancing the experience of flow state and performance in junior athletes. On the basis of previous results, a tailored imagery script was developed to target critical flow dimensions, namely challenge-skills balance, clear goals, concentration on the task, and sense of control. It was hypothesized that the use of cognitive and motivational imagery would increase specific flow dimensions, which, in turn, would enhance flow state and competition performance. Participants in a single-case, multiple baseline A-B design study were four nationally ranked athletes. Following a 6-week baseline phase monitoring flow state and performance and a 6-week intervention phase using relaxation in conjunction with imagery techniques, three participants showed a sustained increase in flow experiences, and all four participants improved their service performance, groundstroke performance, and ranking-list position.

Introducing the revised applied model of deliberate imagery use for sport, dance, exercise, and rehabilitation

Received May 23rd 2012 - Accepted November 4th 2012 Abstract. This article reviews literature on cognitive and motivational imagery use in the sport, exercise, dance, and rehabilitation domains and outlines a revised applied model of imagery use. The original model by Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999 guides practitioners and researchers in determining what cognitive and/or motivational imagery to use in a particular situation for achieving a desired outcome. The revised model proposed builds on the original version by retaining its empirically- supported where, when, and components. Incorporating recent advancements in imagery research, the model distinguishes between what is imaged (i.e., the content) from why it is imaged (i.e., the function). The revised model also acknowledges the importance of the individual and how they interpret an image by including who and meaning components, as well as expanding on how imagery ability is likely to influence the relationship between imagery use and outcomes. Based on imagery's increased usage beyond the sport setting, this review explains how the revised model can also be applied to individuals in the exercise, dance, and rehabilitation settings. Finally, recommendations of how imagery can be effectively used and some predictions of the revised model are provided to encourage future research and application.

Patient-Centered Integrated Motor Imagery Delivered in the Home With Telerehabilitation to Improve Walking After Stroke

This case report describes the clinical reasoning process used to examine a person after stroke and intervene with a novel integrated motor imagery treatment designed for the rehabilitation of walking and delivered in the home through telerehabilitation. The integrated motor imagery treatment consisted of patient-centered goal setting and physical practice combined with motor and motivational imagery. The patient was a 38-year-old woman who had had a diffuse left subarachnoid hemorrhagic stroke 10 years earlier. She lived independently in an assisted living complex and carried a straight cane during long walks or in unfamiliar environments. Examination revealed a slow gait speed, reduced walking endurance, and decreased balance confidence. Although she was in the chronic phase, patient-centered integrated motor imagery was predicted to improve her community mobility. Treatment sessions of 45 to 60 minutes were held 3 times per week for 4 weeks. The practiced tasks included transitioning from sitting to standing, obstacle clearance, and navigation in interior and exterior environments; these tasks were first executed and then imagined at ratios of 1:5. Task execution allowed the creation of a scene based on movement observation. Imagery scenarios were customized to address the patient's goals and observed movement problems. Motivational elements of arousal, problem solving, and reward were embedded in the imagery scenarios. Half of the sessions were provided on site, and the remaining sessions were delivered remotely. Seven sessions were delivered by the clinician in the home, and 5 sessions were delivered using telerehabilitation. Improvements in motor imagery ability, gait parameters, and balance were observed after training. Most gains were retained at the 3-month follow-up. Compared with on-site delivery, the telerehabilitation sessions resulted in less therapist travel time and cost, as well as shorter therapy sessions. The delivery of integrated motor imagery practice for walking recovery was feasible both on site and remotely.