Motivational General-mastery Imagery Research Articles

The effect of an imagery training intervention on self-confidence and anxiety in acrobatic gymnastics

Background: Acrobatics is a discipline within gymnastics which lacks empirical research in relation to psychological skills training. Due to the different mixes of gender, age and number of gymnasts working in each partnership, the psychological pressure for acrobats could be higher than gymnasts who train and compete on their own. Research conducted in other aesthetic sports have proposed imagery training for elevating self-confidence and controlling anxiety levels yet there is no evidence on the use of imagery training in acrobatic gymnastics. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of an imagery intervention on acrobatic performance, self-confidence and anxiety in acrobatic gymnastics.Methods: Twenty-one acrobatic gymnasts (mean age=13.7 years) completed a demographic questionnaire, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 and the Sport Imagery Questionnaire prior to performing their competitive routine for baseline measures. Within their competitive partnerships, they were randomly-assigned to the control group (n=8) who continued with their physical training and the imagery training group(n=11) who completed 2 imagery scripts a week for 4 weeks. The same measures were taken post intervention.Results: Repeated measures ANOVAs were used to examine changes in acrobatic performance, levels of self-confidence and anxiety. The imagery intervention significantly increased acrobat’s self-confidence compared to the control (F₁ˏ₁₇= 14.18, p= .002), however; imagery did not significantly reduce cognitive anxiety (F₁ˏ₁₇= 1.96, p> .05, η²= .10) or somatic anxiety (F₁ˏ₁₇= .92, p> .05, η²= .35). The in-between group comparisons revealed no significant changes in acrobatic performance. There was a significant main effect of time in the intervention group for the targeted imagery functions- motivational general arousal imagery (F₁ˏ₁₇= 7.16, p= .02, η²= .30) and motivational general-mastery imagery (F₁ˏ₁₇=5.16, p= .04, η²= .23).Discussion: The current study was the first to explore the effects of an imagery training intervention in acrobatic gymnasts which sets a foundation for future research. Acrobatic gymnasts should adopt a 4 week imagery training programme in practice and competition in order to enhance their self-confidence, but not to reduce anxiety or improve performance scores. Further research is required to identify the effect of an increased duration imagery intervention in acrobatic gymnastics which follow a more intense and consistent programme.

Interrelations of Imagery Use, Imagery Ability, and Performance in Young Athletes

The present study aimed to provide a better understanding of the relationship between imagery use, imagery ability, the interrelation between these two constructs, and athletic performance for young athletes. Participants were 80 gymnasts between 7 and 16 years of age. We assessed 5 different functions of imagery use and imagery ability regarding cognitive and motivational imagery. Cognitive specific imagery use, motivational general-mastery imagery use, and goal imagery ability significantly predicted performance at competition, independent of the athletes’ age. Consequently, it is useful to support young athletes’ imagery use and imagery ability systematically in order to improve their learning processes and sports performance.

Mediator and moderator variables of imagery use-motor learning and sport performance relationships: a narrative review

The aim of the present review paper was to identify the potential mediator and moderator variables involved in the recommendation of which types (functions) of imagery are the greatest use to the performer. The current review has proven that the efficacy in using imagery as a mediator of the relationship between imagery ability and cognitive imagery use. Particularly, it has been consistently found that athletes who use motivational general-mastery (MG-M) imagery report higher levels of both self-confidence and self-efficacy. As moderator variables, the reviewed studies have revealed that the stage of skill learning has a differential effect on the type of imagery used by athletes. Firstly, in the early stages of skill acquisition, novices may use imagery primarily for its cognitive specific (CS) function to assist in the organization of information (about the skill or strategy to be learnt). Secondly, in the autonomous stage of learning, athletes reported their use of imagery for MG-M function. Typically, MG-M imagery is mostly used in competition and CS imagery is mostly in practice, with motivational specific (MS) and motivational general-arousal (MG-A) imagery the least used in both these settings. However, the present review also showed that athletes at higher competitive levels used all five functions of imagery to a greater extent in both training and competition than do athletes at lower levels. In addition, this review indicated that athletes in closed-skill sports use more cognitive imagery functions [CS and cognitive general (CG)] than athletes in open-skill sports. While, athletes in open-skilled sports used significantly more MG-A imagery than those in closed-skill sports. It has also been shown that CG imagery is used more in such team sports (i.e., soccer) to build or maintain confidence and self-efficacy, and the CS imagery is used to improve sport performance (i.e., passing, dribbling). In conclusion, the data obtained in the present review have shown that self-efficacy as factors that may facilitate the effectiveness of imagery use by athletes. Thus, athletes report using imagery for all five functions (CG, CS, MG-A, MG-M, and MS imagery), MG-M and CS imagery are typically the most frequently employed. Whereas, MG-M and CG functions used to build or maintain confidence and self-efficacy, and CS function used to improve skill learning and sport performance. From an applied perspective, sport psychologists and fitness trainers can be implemented mental imagery training according to their athlete levels, types of skills, the intended outcome for the imagery use, phase of learning, and sport situations.

Using a MG-M Imagery Intervention to Enhance the Sport Competence of Young Special Olympics Athletes

Abstract Opportunities for athletes with an intellectual disability (ID) to participate in sport are limited by physical and psychosocial barriers. Sport psychology interventions may be able to address these barriers, namely the lack of sport competence that athletes with an ID experience. This study sought to enhance sport competence among athletes with an ID using personalized motivational general-mastery (MG-M) imagery scripts. The six-week study assessed the imagery use, imagery ability, and sport competence of five Special Olympians (Mage=11.40) who had ID’s including autism, a mild intellectual disability, and a moderate intellectual disability. Three of five participants demonstrated improvements in sport competence through the intervention, with two of those three maintaining these changes upon withdrawal of the intervention. Effect sizes suggested that scores became more stable during the intervention for three of five participants. Implications of the current study emphasize the feasibility of conducting research with this special population of athletes. Additionally, this study identifies the relevant modifications for mental skills training with individuals who have an ID. Results suggest that imagery use, ability, and sport competence can be improved with individualized imagery training among athletes with an ID.

The Effect of Imagery Type on Self-Efficacy for Discrete and Continuous Soccer Skills

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of cognitive specific and motivational general-mastery imagery on self-efficacy for discrete and continuous skills in 12-14 years old learners. Four soccer teams from soccer Academies were selected (age: 12.85±0.45 years). Comparing penalty and dribbling self-efficacy before and after eight weeks of cognitive specific imagery for dribble, cognitive specific imagery for penalty and motivational imagery general – mastery with control group, did not show a significant difference. Imagery instructions may be age appropriate. The use of mental imagery in the 12-14 years participants should be used with caution and under the supervision of expert Sport Psychologists.

Using Motivational General-Mastery Imagery to Improve the Self-efficacy of Youth Squash Players

The current study examined whether an individualized motivational general-mastery MG-M imagery intervention consisting of daily imagery practice and weekly one-on-one guided imagery sessions could enhance self-efficacy in youth squash athletes (N = 5; M age = 10.80; SD = 1.93). A single-subject multiple-baseline design was employed spanning 13–18 weeks. Measures included the Sport Imagery Questionnaire for Children (Hall, Munroe-Chandler, Fishburne, & Hall et al., 2009) and a squash-specific self-efficacy questionnaire. Results indicated improvements in self-efficacy for 3 of the 5 athletes. The results from this study help inform researchers and practitioners regarding the use of MG-M imagery as a means to improve young athletes’ self-efficacy.

Imagery Use of Athletes in Individual and Team Sports That Require Open and Closed Skill

This study compared use of imagery in elite male and female athletes in open and closed and individual or team sports. A total of 151 elite Turkish athletes ages 15 to 29 years old (males' M age=20.7 yr., SD=3.3; females' M age=20.0 yr., SD=3.5) from open-team sports (n=66), open-individual sports (n=26), and closed-individual sports (n=59) completed the sport imagery questionnaire. A significant multivariate effect of sport type was found. Univariate analyses indicated that male and female athletes in team open-skill sports and individual closed-skill sports used more motivational general-mastery imagery than did athletes in individual open-skill sports.

Examining the Relationship Between Mental Toughness and Imagery Use

Mental toughness is an important characteristic contributing to athletic excellence (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007), yet little quantitative research has examined how psychological skills such as imagery contribute to its development. The present study investigated the relationship between mental toughness with imagery in a sample of varsity athletes (N = 151, Mage = 20.70). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that imagery use significantly predicted mental toughness. Specifically, motivational general-mastery imagery emerged as the strongest individual predictor for all dimensions of mental toughness (β = .45-.53), thus, providing support for imagery use as a potential strategy for developing or enhancing mental toughness in athletes.

Development of the Chinese Version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire

The purpose of this study was to develop the Chinese version of Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ) and to examine its reliability and validity. This study included two procedures. The procedure one was used to conduct confirmatory factor analysis. This study adopted the way of comparing the model fitness of the competitive models to choose the best model, and this study further tested the reliability and validity of the model. The procedure two was to examine the measurement invariance of this questionnaire. In this study, procedure one and two included 237 and 395 valid questionnaires respectively, total 632 valid questionnaires. The results showed a five-factor oblique model of SIQ Scale, named cognitive specific, cognitive general, motivational specific, motivational general-arousal and motivational general-mastery imagery. This theoretical model was found to be good overall fit, construct reliability, convergent validity, discriminate validity, and passed the examination of measurement invariance. It was concluded that the development of the Chinese version of SIQ provided good reliability and validity. The SIQ could be used to assess competitive athletes' sport imagery for future researchers.

The Effects of a Motivational General-Mastery Imagery Intervention on the Imagery Ability and Sport Confidence of Inter-Collegiate Golfers

Abstract Motivational general-mastery imagery is described as imaging overcoming challenges in sport with confidence and control. Using a single-subject multiple baseline design three male inter-collegiate golfers completed the Motivational Imagery Ability Measure for Sport during baseline and post-intervention phases and completed the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2R prior to each competitive round. Golf scores were recorded at the conclusion of each competition. Participants engaged in six sessions of guided motivational general-mastery imagery training over a three-week period. The sport confidence of one participant significantly increased from baseline to intervention. Golf performance (measured by stroke average) of two participants improved. All participants showed improvement in their ability to use imagery and indicated the imagery training program was effective.

Imagery and observational learning use and their relationship to sport confidence

The present study investigated 345 athletes' (male = 152, female = 193) use of observational learning and imagery for practice and at competition and how this related to sport confidence. The Functions of Observational Learning Questionnaire (Cumming et al., 2005), the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (Hall et al., 1998), and the Trait Sport Confidence Inventory (Vealey, 1986) were contextualized by asking participants to rate each item twice, once for practice and once for competition. The athletes reported using each of the different functions of observational learning and imagery in these situations, but the pattern of use differed. Whereas nearly all of the imagery functions were more frequently used at competition, the majority of observational learning functions were used more for practice. Cognitive specific and motivational general-mastery imagery were significant predictors of sport confidence in practice and competition, whereas the skill function of observational learning significantly predicted practice confidence only.

Characteristics Affecting the Use of Imagery: A Youth Sports Academy Study

An understanding of the effects of imagery on performance is well documented (Weinberg, 2008). However, most of the research has been conducted examining adult athletes (Hall, 2001); few studies have investigated the characteristics of youth sport performers imagery use. Participants from a United Kingdom sports academy included 74 individuals (42 male, 32 female), with a mean age of 16.76 (SD = 0.72). The sample included 24 national, 23 county, and 27 club athletes from a total of 13 sports. Participants completed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall et al., 1998) and the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire (VMIQ; Issac et al., 1986). Participants were grouped according to competitive level, practice volume, and imagery ability. Results indicated that athletes use motivational general-mastery imagery most frequently with motivational general-arousal used the least. There was also a significant difference between practice volume and subsequent imagery use. The results suggest that applied practitioners' working with youth sport performers should consider practice volume as a potential characteristic that influences the frequency of imagery use.

Playing with confidence: The relationship between imagery use and self-confidence and self-efficacy in youth soccer players

Confidence has been one of the most consistent factors in distinguishing the successful from the unsuccessful athletes (Gould, Weiss, & Weinberg, 1981) and Bandura (1997) proposed that imagery is one way to enhance confidence. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between imagery use and confidence in soccer (football) players. The participants included 122 male and female soccer athletes ages 11–14 years participating in both house/recreation (n = 72) and travel/competitive (n = 50) levels. Athletes completed three questionnaires; one measuring the frequency of imagery use, one assessing generalised self-confidence, and one assessing self-efficacy in soccer. A series of regression analyses found that Motivational General-Mastery (MG-M) imagery was a signifant predictor of self-confidence and self-efficacy in both recreational and competitive youth soccer players. More specifically, MG-M imagery accounted for between 40 and 57% of the variance for both self-confidence and self-efficacy with two other functions (MG-A and MS) contributing marginally in the self-confidence regression for recreational athletes. These findings suggest that if a youth athlete, regardless of competitive level, wants to increase his/her self-confidence or self-efficacy through the use of imagery, the MG-M function should be emphasised.

The use of imagery across competitive levels and time of season: a cross-sectional study among synchronized skaters in Finland

The purpose of this study was to gain an insight into the use of imagery by Finnish synchronized skaters. A total of 269 skaters (senior=85, junior=98, novice=86) simultaneously completed the original and a translated version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998) twice, first at the beginning of the pre-season (July–August 2002) and then during the competitive season (January 2003). Multivariate analyses of variance revealed (all P<0.05) that senior skaters used more cognitive specific (CS), motivational general-arousal (MG-A), and motivational general-mastery (MG-M) imagery than junior skaters; differences in CS, cognitive general (CG), MG-A, and MG-M imagery were found between senior and novice skaters; between junior and novice skaters, differences were found in CG and MG-A imagery. Time of season analyses revealed skaters used more CG, MS, and MG-M imagery during the competitive season than at the beginning of the pre-season. No significant interaction effect between competitive level and time of season was observed. The results are discussed in relation to the applied model of imagery (Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999). To make competitive level transitions less demanding, the results suggest that a psychological skills training programme should be introduced for novice synchronized skaters.

Adopting Paivio's General Analytic Framework to Examine Imagery Use in Sport

This study examined the use of imagery according to Paivio's (1985) general analytic framework. The aims were to examine functional differences in imagery use according to the five subscales of the SIQ, to investigate differences in imagery use by competitive level, and to explore the influence on the use of imagery of skills involving a perceptual target (reactive tasks) and without a perceptual target (nonreactive tasks). Participants included 484 individuals (280 male, 204 female), with a mean age of 20.39 (SD = 4.10) from the United Kingdom, Finland, and Australia. The group comprised 84 national, 210 state, 120 district, and 70 recreational level athletes representing 54 sports. Participants completed a demographic information sheet and the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ). Participants were classified according to competitive level and task type. Results indicated that overall participants used more motivational general-mastery imagery. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance revealed that there were significant differences among the four competitive levels on imagery use with the district level participants reporting significantly higher use of motivational general-arousal (MG-A) imagery than state and national level participants and national level participants reporting higher use of cognitive specific (CS) imagery than recreational level participants. There was also a significant difference between tasks with a perceptual target and tasks with no target for motivational-specific imagery, with higher scores for tasks with a perceptual target. The results suggest the continued evaluation of imagery use in relation to competitive level and support that task type may influence the functional use of imagery in sport.

The Relationship of Skill Level and Age to the Use of Imagery by Golfers

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship of an objective measure of skill level, golf handicap, and age to the use of imagery. Five different functions of imagery were assessed through the Sport Imagery Questionnaire: cognitive specific, cognitive general, motivational specific, motivational general-arousal, and motivational general-mastery. Pearson correlations indicated handicap was significantly related to all five functions of imagery, while age was significantly related to the cognitive specific, cognitive general, and motivational general-mastery functions. As handicap decreased there was a corresponding increase in imagery use. As age increased there was a corresponding decrease in imagery use. Five hierarchical regressions were performed and handicap predicted the use of all five functions of imagery. The addition of age to the regression equations significantly added to the prediction of the cognitive functions of imagery use. Also, the interaction between handicap and age had a significant effect on the use of motivational general-mastery imagery.

More than Meets the Eye: Investigating Imagery Type, Direction, and Outcome

The effects of imagery direction on self-efficacy and performance in a dart throwing task were examined. Two imagery types were investigated: skill-based cognitive specific (CS) and confidence-based motivational general-mastery (MG-M). Seventy-five novice dart throwers were randomly allocated to one of three conditions: (a) facilitative imagery, (b) debilitative imagery, or (c) control. After 2 imagery interventions, the debilitative imagery group rated their self-efficacy significantly lower than the facilitative group and performed significantly worse than either the facilitative group or the control group. Efficacy ratings remained constant across trials for the facilitative group, but decreased significantly for both the control group and the debilitative group. Performance remained constant for the facilitative and the control groups but decreased significantly for the debilitative group. Similar to Short et al. (2002), our results indicate that both CS and MG-M imagery can affect self-efficacy and performance.

Enhancing the Collective Efficacy of a Soccer Team through Motivational General-Mastery Imagery

The purpose of this study was to implement a motivational general-mastery imagery intervention in order to increase a soccer team's collective efficacy. The participants were 14 female members of a competitive traveling soccer club ( M = 11.47 years, SD = .74). All athletes were placed into one of three groups based on playing position: forwards, midfielders, or defense/goal keeper. A staggered multiple baseline design across groups was employed to evaluate the imagery intervention. Collective efficacy data for training and competition were collected once a week for 13 weeks. The imagery intervention began at weeks 4, 7, and 10 for the forwards, midfielders and defense/goal keeper, respectively. Results from visual inspection as well as Binomial tests revealed athletes' collective efficacy increased with the implementation of the motivational general-mastery imagery intervention for both training and competition for two of the three groups. In order to investigate the athlete's individualized imagery use, an imagery assessment questionnaire was administered. The results showed that the athletes used imagery on almost a daily basis. As well, the athletes had a very positive reaction to the imagery training.

Pre-competition imagery, self-efficacy and performance in collegiate golfers

In this study, we examined the relationships between self-efficacy, pre-competition imagery use and performance. A modified version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire was used to assess both the motivational and cognitive functions of imagery used by 51 varsity golfers during the hour before a Provincial University Golf Championship. In line with Martin and co-workers' model of imagery use in sport, we hypothesized that self-efficacy would be positively related to motivational general-mastery imagery use and motivational generalmastery imagery use would be predictive of golf performance. Also, consistent with theorizing by Bandura, we hypothesized that self-efficacy would predict golf performance, but that the relationship between self-efficacy and performance would be mediated by imagery use. The results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that pre-competition motivational general-mastery imagery accounted for significant variance in both self-efficacy (adjusted R 2 = 0.26, P ≪ 0.01) and performance (adjusted R 2 = 0.31, P ≪ 0.01). The results also indicated that self-efficacy was predictive of golf performance and that motivational general-mastery imagery use mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and performance. The results are discussed in relation to athletes' pre-competition preparation and intervention.

The Effects of a Motivational General-Mastery Imagery Intervention on the Sport Confidence of High-Level Badminton Players

A multiple-baseline across-participants design was used to examine the effects of a Motivational General-Mastery imagery intervention on the sport confidence of 4 high-level junior badminton players. Sport confidence data were collected once a week for 21 weeks prior to international and county matches. The imagery intervention consisted of six imagery sessions (two per week for 3 weeks) and was administered using a multiple-baseline design with interventions commencing at Weeks 5, 7, 9, and 11 for Participants 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Results of visual inspection and Binomial tests suggested significant increases in sport confidence for Participants 1 and 2, a significant decrease in sport confidence for Participant 3, and a delayed increase in sport confidence for Participant 4. The results are discussed in terms of the implications of using mastery imagery and the usefulness of multiple-baseline designs for furthering imagery research.