Mother-infant Separations Research Articles

The Effects of At-Birth Adoption on Atypical Behavior and Anxiety: A Nonhuman Primate Model

Adopted children tend to show an increased risk for a variety of psychopathological outcomes, even when adoption occurs at birth, which some suggest is a result of nonrandom assignment of adoptees and parents. This study uses a nonhuman primate model, in which adoptions were randomly assigned, to investigate the behavioral and physiological outcomes associated with at-birth adoption. Immediately following birth, rhesus monkey infants were randomly assigned to be reared by either their biological mother (n= 113) or by an unrelated, lactating, adoptive mother (n= 34). At 6 months of age, infant behavior and physiology were assessed during a stressful series of mother-infant separations. Four years later, stress-related behaviors were measured following confrontation by an unfamiliar intruder, an ecologically meaningful stressor. When compared to infants reared by their biological mothers, adopted infants exhibited more behavioral withdrawal and higher plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) concentrations in response to separation. These behavioral differences persisted 4 years later during a stressful intruder challenge, with adoptees exhibiting more behavioral withdrawal, stereotypies, and impulsive approaches of the potentially aggressive intruder. Compared to infants reared by their biological mothers, adopted infants exhibited more behavioral inhibition, impulsivity, and higher ACTH concentrations, even when subjects were randomly assigned to be adopted or to remain with their biological mother. To the extent that these findings generalize to humans, they suggest that the overall risk for psychopathology in adopted individuals persists even after random assignment to adoption conditions.

Mother–infant separations in prison. A systematic attachment-focused review of the academic and grey literature

This review systematically searched UK academic and grey literature in relation to mother and child separation in prison. Attachment theory is referred to in current prison policy for mothers and could provide a framework linking policy and practice. Reviewing grey literature provided an opportunity to explore practice-based literature. Twenty-four academic papers and 51 grey documents were reviewed. Use of attachment theory in the academic literature varied according to discipline, ranging from extensive use to no use. There was greater use of attachment theory in the grey literature. Despite linguistic differences, all documents highlighted the detrimental impact of separation on imprisoned mothers. However, specificity was lacking regarding support for mothers, and staff needs were overlooked. Given its use across the sparse research and practice literature, and its basis for policy, attachment theory could underpin theoretically informed support for imprisoned mothers separated from their infants and staff who support them.

Mother–infant separations in prison. A systematic attachment-focused policy review

Mothers in prison separated from their young children are an overlooked group. Attachment theory could provide a useful model to underpin interventions and better support women affected by separation from their infants. Current policy draws on a limited body of evidence and research has developed considerably since its first design. This review systematically searched all relevant UK prison policy and government documents with regards to mother and child separation in prison and analysed the extent to which these documents draw on attachment theory. Following initial searches, 58 documents were thematically analysed. Attachment was implicitly referred to in most documents but only explicitly mentioned in four. Global themes identified included ‘separation as trauma’. However, document groups varied in focusing either on the mother or the child and there were no joint perspectives. Developing and researching specific attachment-informed interventions might be one way forward as would further attachment-based research in this area.

Neonatal factors influence adult stroke outcome

Neonatal environment can have important, life-long influences on stress-reactivity and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis regulation. In rodents, brief mother-infant separations have been shown to improve efficiency of the HPA axis, decrease stress-reactivity, and decrease age-related declines in cognitive function. Here, we provide evidence that there are potential costs associated with improved HPA axis regulation, including increased sensitivity to cerebral inflammation and glucocorticoid-mediated neuronal death following stroke. Specifically, brief mother-infant separation decreases the initial corticosteroid response to experimental stroke in adult mice, but increases post-stroke pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, edema, and infarct volume compared to ischemic controls. Brief maternal separation also compromises functional recovery and long-term survival following stroke. In addition, adrenalectomy reverses the effects of brief maternal separation on stroke outcome when corticosterone is replaced at baseline, but not ischemic, concentrations; thus, neonatally separated mice are more sensitized as adults to the detrimental effects of elevated corticosterone during ischemia. Taken together, these data provide the first direct evidence that neonatal environment can substantially influence adult cerebrovascular health.

Separation as a natural cue to danger in the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta).

Spotted hyena biology suggests mothers and infants will exhibit one of two alternative responses to separation: (a) Due to prolonged dependency, infants will act similarly to Old World monkeys, displaying distress and proximity seeking behaviors; or (b) because mother-infant separations are frequent in the wild, infants will exhibit little distress or change in reunion behavior. Hence, reunion behavior following mother-infant separation was compared to control periods in captive hyena (Crocuta crocuta) mothers and infants at two developmental periods. Significant increases (p < or =.05) in distress (i.e., agitated arousal and increased vocalization) and proximity maintenance (i.e., cub and maternal approaches, and maternal monitoring) as well as a trend towards increased sibling aggression following separation were observed. Responsibility for proximity maintenance, assessed by the Hinde Index, adhered to patterns common to primates---with cubs assuming increased responsibility later in development. Findings are discussed in light of hyena ecology and Attachment Theory.

Natal attraction: allomaternal care and mother–infant separations in wild bottlenose dolphins

To determine whether allomaternal care occurs among bottlenose dolphins, we examined patterns of association and mother–infant separations for eight infants (164.4 focal h) during the first 3 months of life. During the first week of life, three inexperienced females (nullipara and mothers of infants that did not survive the newborn period) attempted to take infants from their mothers 13 times. Mothers responded by rapidly retrieving the infant and threatening the female. By the second week, mothers consistently allowed the same females to escort their infants to tens of metres away from them, suggesting that such separations were no longer risky, possibly because infants had imprinted on their mothers. To determine whether escorts benefited mothers after the first week, we compared maternal behaviour when infants were away from their mothers, but alone (solitary separations), to when infants were away, but with escorts (social separations). Mothers were less likely to forage and were more likely to engage in non-foraging activities (socialize, rest or travel) when infants were with young escorts (other dependent infants) compared with when infants were alone. When infants were with older (juvenile or adult) escorts, maternal activity did not differ significantly compared with when infants were alone. This result suggests that escorts did not benefit mothers by allowing them to forage. Inexperienced females that never raised an infant were more likely to escort newborns than were parous experienced females, supporting the ‘learning to parent’ hypothesis.

Paternal care of infants during maternal separations: associations with father-infant interaction at one year.

Observations of father-infant interaction in the home environment at age one year were compared for two groups of infants that in the months preceding the observations differed in the amount of experience they had with their fathers when the mother was outside the home. The sample consisted of 46 middle-class families, each with a first-born infant (23 males, 23 females). Estimates of the amount of experience the father had with the infant when the mother was outside the home were obtained from detailed maternal interviews that addressed all mother-infant separations. At one year, fathers who provided more extensive care in the absence of the mother showed a higher degree of breadth or variety in their patterns of engaging the infant and higher rates of behavior directed to the infant. These infants showed higher rates of responding to their fathers and more frequent instances of exploratory behavior. Distinctive patterns of differences were evident in the behavior of fathers and infants who had contrasting amounts of experience with each other in social contexts without the mother.

Dimensions of naturally occurring mother-infant separations during the first year of life

The goals of this paper are (1) to introduce a methodology developed to study mother-infant separations that occur in the context of normal family life, including but going beyond separations associated with maternal employment; (2) to present illustrative data that describe the range of separations experienced by one sample of infants; and (3) to demonstrate how a focus on specific underlying dimensions results in a more precise characterization of the separation experience. It is necessary to identify the specific dimensions on which mother-infant separations vary in order to clarify which aspects of separation are relevant to child outcome. Detailed histories of mother-infant separations and concomitant substitute care during the first year of life were obtained by interview from 144 middle-class mothers of first-born infants. Far from being an unusual event, separation from mother was a normal experience during infancy for this sample. Six types of separation were identified, the majority of which have not been studied previously. Analyses indicated that naturally occurring mother-infant separations can be differentiated statistically and compared in terms of amount of separation, stability of care, characteristics of caregivers, and characteristics of the substitute care setting.

The relationship of maternal behavior and anxiety associated with mother-infant separations

The relationship of maternal behavior and anxiety associated with mother-infant separations

Perceptions of mother-infant separations and attitudes toward non-maternal care: Social class differences

This study examined non-maternal involvement in feeding during the first 2 years of life and its association with breastfeeding duration, early introduction of complementary foods, and dietary intakes of selected foods and beverages. Data were from the Infant Care, Feeding and Risk of Obesity Study, a cohort of 217 low-income, African–American mother–infant dyads, followed from 3 to 18 months postpartum. Non-maternal caregivers (NMCs) were defined as persons involved in feeding an infant/toddler 50% or more of the total daily feedings. Use of any NMC and the type of NMC was tabulated for each study visit (3, 6, 9, 12, and 18 months). At each time point, more than half of all households reported a NMC. Fathers, grandmothers, and licensed childcare providers were the most common types of NMCs. In longitudinal models adjusted for confounding variables, NMC use was associated with a decreased likelihood of continued breastfeeding, and an increased likelihood of infants and toddlers consuming juice or whole fruit. Given the high prevalence of non-maternal involvement in feeding, interventions targeting multiple family members are warranted as they are likely to be more effective than those targeting the mother alone.

Early mother-neonate contact and the mother-child relationship.

IN THE last decade, considerable excitement has been generated by the suggestion that events occurring in the immediate postpartum period can have a substantial influence on parental behavior and thus on subsequent child development. In a series of research reports and position papers, Klaus and Kennell (1976), Lozoff et al. (1977), Klaus et al. (1972), Kennell et al. (1979) and de Chateau (1976, 1977, 1980) have argued that there exists in human mothers a sensitive period immediately after delivery during which certain experiences are more likely to produce affectionate attachments or bonds to infants than at any other time. When this 'bonding' process is interrupted, it is postulated, various forms of aberrant parental behavior, including child abuse and neglect, are more likely to occur and suboptim£il child development is more likely. Until recently, the obstetrical practices prevalent throughout the Western world (especially the United States) involved regular mother-infant separations immediately after birth, which meant, according to Klaus and Kennell, that many dyads were placed at risk for parenting failure. The tenor of Klaus and Kennell's argument is well represented by the following excerpt from their popular book. Maternal-Infant Bonding (1976): 'There is a sensitive period in the flrst minutes and hours of life during which it is necessary that the mother and father have close contact with their neonate for later development to be optimal (p. 14; italics added). Research conducted by these investigators suggested that extraordinary efforts might be necessary to overcome the effects of early separation. In many cases, therefore, mothers denied early contact with their infants might appear deficient months and even years later (de Chateau, 1980; Klaus and Kennell, 1976; Sugarman, 1977; Trause, 1981).

Short- and long-term effects of repetitive mother–infant separations on social development in rhesus monkeys.

Des dyades mere-nourrisson singe Rhesus sont soumises a 16 separations physiques de 4 jours, reparties entre le troisieme et le neuvieme mois de la vie du nourrisson. Les separations retardent le developpement des rapports normaux mere-enfant

Short- and long-term effects of repetitive mother-infant separations on social development in rhesus monkeys.

Short- and long-term effects of repetitive mother-infant separations on social development in rhesus monkeys.

Conditions of failure and recovery of maternal behavior in captive squirrel monkeys (Saimiri)

This paper deals with the functioning and malfunctioning of maternal behavior in relation to external and social conditions. During developmental studies in captive squirrel monkey groups, 49 mother-infant pairs were observed. There were several cases of maternal inadequacy subsequent to (1) postnatal transportation, (2) exaggerated social investigation by immatures,and (3) premature allomothering. Brief mother-infant separations by humans did not yield such failures. One female consistently prevented nursing with at least three of her five viable offspring. Complete or partial failure of maternal behavior did not preclude subsequent recovery and/or adequate allomothering.