Species Richness Of Mosses Research Articles

Shedding light on the diversity of epiphytic mosses in some Mexican forests

Background: Epiphytic mosses are one of the most common groups in forest environments but among the most neglected by researchers in Mexico. Questions: What is the epiphytic mosses diversity, measured in richness, turnover, and community composition in Mexican forests? Species of study: Epiphytic mosses. Study site and years: Humid mountain forest, pine-oak and tropical evergreen forests. Study period: 2015 to 2021. Methods: Through a literature review and field work we compiled data on epiphytic mosses in three forest types in Mexico. We assessed the data using alpha and beta diversity analysis, indicator species, and community composition. Additionally, we explored the influence of elevation and forest type on the observed diversity patterns. Results: We report a richness of 147 species of epiphytic mosses across three types of Mexican forests. The humid mountain forest was the best sampled forest with the highest moss species richness. Although species richness is different for the forests studied, species turnover is similar among them. We demonstrated that elevation and forest type are highly correlated with species richness of epiphytic mosses. Conclusions: The epiphytic mosses studied here collectively represent over 15 % of the moss richness of Mexico. Forest type and elevation seem to be the drivers of this widely distributed richness. Finally, we call for more in-depth studies of the forests presented here, as well as those in other latitudes including variables such as humidity and host traits, to provide a more complete picture of an overlooked Mexican flora.

Strong evidence for latitudinal diversity gradient in mosses across the world

Species richness generally decreases with increasing latitude, a biodiversity gradient that has long been considered as one of the few laws in ecology. This latitudinal diversity gradient has been observed in many major groups of organisms. In plants, the latitudinal diversity gradient has been observed in vascular plants, angiosperms, ferns, and liverworts. However, a conspicuous latitudinal diversity gradient in mosses at a global or continental scale has not been observed until now. Here, we analyze a comprehensive data set including moss species in each band of 20° in latitude worldwide. Our results show that moss species richness decreases strongly with increasing latitude, regardless of whether the globe is considered as a whole or different longitudinal segments (e.g., Old World versus New World) are considered separately. This result holds when variation in area size among latitudinal bands is taken into account. Pearson's correlation coefficient between latitude and species richness is −0.99 for both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Because bryophytes are an extant lineage of early land plants and because mosses not only include most of extant species of bryophytes but also are important constituents of most terrestrial ecosystems, understanding geographic patterns of mosses is particularly important. The finding of our study fills a critical knowledge gap.

Effects of root plates, pits and mounds following windthrow events on the biodiversity of plants and lichens in Central European mountain forests

Windthrows lead to the formation of a characteristic land microtopography and they provide new habitats and substrata for species. The present study is novel, because it concerns different taxonomic groups of organisms and effects of various variables on species composition, richness and abundance within root plate-pit-mound (RPM) complexes. For the first time we studied lichens, liverworts, mosses and vascular plants on RPM complexes across major vegetation types, from deciduous to coniferous forests. We analyzed 164 RPM complexes which included in total 268 components: 115 root plates, 80 pits and 73 mounds. Besides the vegetation types and component types the following variables were also considered: dimensions (area, size), age (decomposition degree), species of the uprooted tree, shade, and elevation. The research revealed that root plates, pits and mounds had their own indicator species, but the key factors for the species composition were the species of uprooted trees and the vegetation type. Furthermore, the type of component and the vegetation type were also the most main variables determining the richness and abundance of the studied taxonomic groups of species. Analyses revealed the greatest species richness and abundance of lichens on root plates, and the highest richness of liverworts and vascular plants in pits. The type of component had no effect on the species richness of mosses. However, they were most abundant on mounds. The response of individual groups to the vegetation types and other variables varied. Findings from the study indicated that the presence of uprooted trees with different features (size and age, species of uprooted tree) is important for the biodiversity of mountain forests. We recommend leaving uprooted trees in forest communities for natural colonization, preferably large objects. Moreover, in managed forests a mosaic of forest communities that mimic the structure of natural unmanaged forests should be supported.

Geographic Pattern of Bryophyte Species Richness in China: The Influence of Environment and Evolutionary History

How contemporary environment interacts with macroevolutionary processes to generate the geographic pattern of bryophyte species is still unresolved. China is very rich in bryophytes, with more than 3,000 bryophytes covering 70% of the families in the world. In this study, we assessed the effects of the contemporary environment (average temperature of the coldest season TCQ, precipitation of the warmest season PWQ, and elevational range) and the recent diversification rates (estimated as mean species number per genus, MSG) on the geographical pattern of species richness for bryophytes and two groups (i.e., liverworts and mosses) in China. We compiled the provincial level distribution of bryophyte species and estimated the geographic pattern of the recent diversification rate by MSG for species in China. Univariate, multivariate regressions and path model analyses were used to assess the relationships between species richness, MSG, and their potential environmental drivers. Species richness of all bryophytes and liverworts significantly increased with the increase of MSG, either in regressions or path analyses, indicating that provinces with high bryophyte richness were mainly inhabited by species (especially liverworts) from lineages with particularly high MSG. In contrast, the species richness of mosses was insignificantly decreased with MSG in univariate regression or insignificantly increased with MSG in path analysis. Both species richness and MSG of all bryophytes and liverworts increased with the increase in energy and water availability. In contrast, for mosses, the species richness significantly increased with the increase of energy and water availability, while MSG decreased with the increase of energy and water availability. The MSG of liverworts increase with the increase of elevational range but the MSG of mosses decrease with the increase of elevational range. Our study suggests that the humid tropical and subtropical mountains in China are not only diversity hotspots for bryophytes, but also cradles for high recent diversification of liverworts, and refuges for mosses to hold many monotypic and oligotypic genera.

Species richness of mosses in selo hiking trails mount merbabu national park

Bryophyte are a group of low vascular plants that are not vascular, small, can grow in several substrates and tend to have a humid habitat. Mount Merbabu National Park (TNGMb) is a forest area located in the Mount Merbabu area, which is located in three districts, namely Magelang Regency, Boyolali Regency and Semarang Regency (Central Java Province). The purpose of this study was to analyze the species richness of bryophyte along the Merbabu climbing track through Selo, Boyolali. The method used is the exploration or exploration method. The results of bryophyte that were successfully recorded and identified were 11 families and 15 species, namely Marchantia emarginata, Marchantia polymorpha, Marchantia inflexa, Asterella limbata, Bryum capillare, Rhodobryum ontariense, Brachytecium runtabulum, Barbula indica, Lagiomnium succulentum, Pseudosleropendodium purum flabellatum, Ectropothecium dealbatum, Funaria hygrometrica, Leucobryum Javaness. The Bryophytes that are often encountered are Bryopsida and Marchantiaceae

The mid-domain effect and habitat complexity applied to elevational gradients: Moss species richness in a temperate semihumid monsoon climate mountain of China.

The utility of elevational gradients as tools to test either ecological hypotheses and delineate elevation‐associated environmental factors that explain the species diversity patterns is critical for moss species conservation. We examined the elevational patterns of species richness and evaluated the effects of spatial and environmental factors on moss species predicted a priori by alternative hypotheses, including mid‐domain effect (MDE), habitat complexity, energy, and environment proposed to explain the variation of diversity. Last, we assessed the contribution of elevation toward explaining the heterogeneity among sampling sites. We observed the hump‐shaped distribution pattern of species richness along elevational gradient. The MDE and the habitat complexity hypothesis were supported with MDE being the primary driver for richness patterns, whereas little support was found for the energy and the environmental factors.

Diversity and composition of moss guilds on uprooted trees in Central European mountain forests: effects of uprooting components and environmental variables

Key messageThe size of the structural components of the root–pit–mound complex was crucial for high moss species richness. Root plates, pits, and mounds were similar in terms of moss species composition, which was mostly determined by forest type.ContextUprooted trees may be colonized by different terricolous mosses including common species and specialists.AimsThe main aim of the present study was to analyze the relative effects of tree uprooting on mosses.MethodsWe used the parametric ZIGLMM and GLMM models to explain the richness and abundance of the moss species and double constrained correspondence analysis (dc-CA) to analyze species composition.ResultsThe size of components of RPM complexes had a positive effect on moss species richness. The species cover of mosses was positively correlated with elevation. Species richness was partly dependent on forest type and species cover on component type and age of the RPM complex. The most important factor diversifying species composition was the type of forest. Species traits were also related to forest communities.ConclusionUprooted trees are worth keeping in forest community, especially large ones. Moreover, the conservation value of uprooted trees in woodlands is higher if they are dispersed in different forest types.

Effects of elevation and disturbances on the associations between the diversities of bryophyte and macrolichen functional-taxonomic groups on Madeira Island

Biodiversity varies with elevation and is affected by disturbances. However, little is known about how the associations between the diversities of different bryophyte and macrolichen functional-taxonomic groups are altered along elevational gradients and by disturbances. Knowledge on the associations between these functional-taxonomic groups might be of importance in practical conservation biology, as identifying indicator taxa which are easy to monitor could be useful in estimating a wider biodiversity. We sampled the species richness of bryophytes and macrolichens in 92 plots distributed in disturbed and undisturbed stands along elevational gradients in the laurel forest of Madeira. We then calculated a matrix of correlations for all pairwise combinations of 18 different functional-taxonomic bryophyte and macrolichen groups and tested for average differences in correlations with elevation and disturbance history and whether particular functional-taxonomic groups can be used to estimate the richness of other taxa. Associations between the diversities of functional-taxonomic groups within the bryophyte group and within the macrolichen group were always positive and mainly strong. Although changes in elevation and disturbance history changed the associations between the different bryophyte and macrolichen functional-taxonomic groups, we found the species richness of mosses or liverworts to be suitable for predicting overall bryophyte species richness and the species richness of green-algae macrolichens to be reliable for estimating overall macrolichen species richness. Associations between diversities of bryophyte and macrolichen groups were generally weak, suggesting that the two groups have different ecological requirements and do not share the same environmental drivers. The fact that no single bryophyte taxon can be used to predict the richness of any macrolichen group, and vice versa, points to the need to study both bryophytes and lichens. However, we found indicator taxa that are relatively easy to monitor and therefore could be used to estimate the wider biodiversity.

Long-term responses of forest-floor bryophytes buried by tephra in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens

Responses in bryophyte communities following volcanic disturbance are not well understood. The eruption of Mount St. Helens on 18 May 1980 deposited large amounts of tephra (aerially transported volcanic ejecta) on nearby forests in southwestern Washington and presented an opportunity to examine bryophyte succession, with a focus on mosses. We examined changes in moss community over 36 years following this disturbance, using permanent plots located in old-growth conifer forests. We used an experimental design where we removed the tephra from some of the plots shortly after the eruption. Initial dramatic decreases in total bryophyte cover, moss species richness, and diversity in plots with intact tephra were followed by increases by 2016. Community profiles also shifted through time but were somewhat site-specific. Moss community change was related to changes in vascular plant species and was driven by changes in a few key moss species with distinct growth strategies. Bryophyte change through time was most pronounced in the plots buried by tephra, but differed among sites. Overall, total bryophyte cover had recovered, reaching our estimate of pre-disturbance levels at all sites after 36 years, but trajectories of change differed among sites, demonstrating the importance of idiosyncratic site factors and the dynamics of the vascular plant species.

The mosses of Kangkawat Research Station, Imbak Canyon Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia

A total of 65 species, two subspecies and one variety of mosses in 32 genera and 17 families from 102 individuals were collected during the Borneo Geographic Expedition at Kangkawat Research Station from 29th September to 3rd October 2018. This number represents ca. 10% of the taxa of mosses reported for Sabah and ca. 9% of the taxa reported for Borneo. The largest moss family recorded in this area was Calymperaceae with 18 species and one subspecies which is ca. 28% of the total taxa collected, followed by Sematophyllaceae with eight species (ca. 12%). Out of the 68 taxa of mosses from the study area, ten are new to Imbak Canyon Conservation Area including one new to Sabah, which is Chaetomitrium weberi Broth. By and large, the moss species richness of Kangkawat Research Station is typical of the conservation area.

Don't eat where you sleep: unexpected diversity of food web for beetles feeding on mosses

Abstract Bryophytes represent favourable habitats for many arthropods, but their utilisation as a food source is marginal. While one of the largest monophyletic groups that represent obligatory bryophyte consumers are the Byrrhidae, host ranges for species in this group of beetles remain largely unknown due to their cryptic appearance and rarity. The occasional notes of ‘associated’ moss species that do exist are related to where Byrrhidae were found and not to diet analysis. Because the majority of Byrrhidae are stenobionts with limited dispersal, the assumption that associated moss species are also used as food is a useful hypothesis. To test this hypothesis, 328 individuals were sampled from the species: Cytilus sericeus, Byrrhus fasciatus, Byrrhus pilula, and Byrrhus glabratus. Mosses from both the stomachs and the immediate microhabitats of beetles were determined with the aim of (i) identifying their host range and (ii) testing whether the moss species from microhabitats in which beetles were collected were also found in their stomachs. Almost 40 bryophyte species were found in beetle stomachs and accumulation curves for all beetle species failed to achieve asymptotes, together showing that all species are highly polyphagous. Although a strong general correlation existed between moss consumption and occupation, discrepancies were present at the individual level with there being considerably higher moss species richness in beetle stomachs than in their immediate microhabitats. Our results question the assumption that bryophyte occupancy and consumption can be used interchangeably when studying host use in these insects.

Ecohydrological gradients and their restoration on the periphery of extracted peatlands

The moss layer transfer technique is effective at restoring extracted peatland surfaces. However, remnant peatlands persist on the periphery of extracted surfaces. These remnant peatlands drop steeply to extracted surfaces, producing artificial ecotones that are more challenging to restore. We asked to what degree natural ecotones at undisturbed reference fens can act as models for the restoration of artificial ecotones around an extracted peatland, and whether management actions can ameliorate conditions in artificial ecotones. We compared changes in elevation, water table, peat, and multiple vegetation characteristics between natural ecotones and unmanaged artificial ecotones. We then clear‐cut peripheral strips, completely filled perimeter canals, and smoothed peripheral slopes around sections of the extracted surfaces to assess whether hydrological conditions improved. Without management, artificial ecotones are not good models of natural ecotones. The elevation gradient is steep, and water tables drop steeply within 8 m of blocked perimeter canals, with possible effects at 25 m. The consequent vegetation had denser tree saplings, faster tree growth, almost no moss cover, and low moss species richness. After these management actions, water tables increased to within approximately 5 cm of those along natural ecotones. Future study is required to assess the extent of vegetation recovery, but these results hold promise for a more holistic rehabilitation of ecotones on the periphery of extracted peatland surfaces. We present recommendations to optimize the management actions on the periphery of extracted peatlands.

Water as a resource, stress and disturbance shaping tundra vegetation

Water is crucial for plant productivity and survival as a fundamental resource, but water conditions can also cause physiological stress and mechanical disturbance to vegetation. However, these different influences of water on vegetation patterns have not been evaluated simultaneously. Here, we demonstrate the importance of three water aspects (spatial and temporal variation of soil moisture and fluvial disturbance) for three ecologically and evolutionary distinct taxonomical groups (vascular plants, mosses and lichens) in Fennoscandian mountain tundra. Fine‐scale plant occurrence data for 271 species were collected from 378 × 1 m2 plots sampled over broad environmental gradients (water, temperature, radiation, soil pH, cryogenic processes and the dominant allelopathic plant species). While controlling all other key environmental variables, water in its different aspects proved to be a crucial environmental driver, acting on individual species and on community characteristics. The inclusion of the water variables significantly improved our models. In this high‐latitude system, the importance of spatial variability of water exceeds the importance of temperature for the fine‐scale distribution of species from the three taxonomical groups. We found differing responses to the three water variables between and within the taxonomical groups. Water as a resource was the most important water‐related variable in species distribution models across all taxonomical groups. Both water resource and disturbance were strongly related to vascular plant species richness, whereas for moss species richness, water resources had the highest influence. For lichen species richness, water disturbance was the most influential water‐related variable. These findings demonstrate that water variables are not only independent properties of tundra hydrology, but also that water is truly a multifaceted driver of vegetation patterns at high‐latitudes.

The Mosses of Crocker Range Park, Malaysian Borneo.

This paper reports the mosses from Crocker Range Park (CRP) in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. In total, 293 species, three subspecies and eight varieties belonging to 118 genera and 36 families are reported. This represents about 40% and 47% of the species and infra-specific taxa reported from Borneo and Sabah, respectively. Out of these, six species are new records for Borneo, namely Barbella horridula, Chaetomitrium lancifolium, Distichophyllum leiopogon, Rhaphidostichum luzonense, Rosulabryum capillare and Taxiphyllum taxirameum and 12 species and one variety are new to Sabah. With these additions, the current number of mosses in Sabah and Borneo are 651 and 766, respectively. The largest family of mosses is Calymperaceae with 35 species and one subspecies, followed by Sematophyllaceae with 32 species and two varieties and Pylaisiadelphaceae with 21 species and one variety. In conclusion, CRP has a very high species richness of mosses which is the second highest in Borneo, after Mount Kinabalu.

What are the evolutionary mechanisms explaining the similar species richness patterns in tropical mosses? Insights from the phylogeny of the pantropical genus Pelekium

As opposed to angiosperms, moss species richness is similar among tropical regions of the world, in line with the hypothesis that tropical bryophytes are extremely good dispersers. Here, we reconstructed the phylogeny of the pantropical moss genus Pelekium to test the hypothesis that high migration rates erase any difference in species richness among tropical regions. In contrast with this hypothesis, several species considered to have a pantropical range were resolved as a complex of species with a strong geographic structure. Consequently, a significant phylogeographical signal was found in the data, evidencing that cladogenetic diversification within regions takes place at a faster rate than intercontinental migration. The shape of the Pelekium phylogeny, along with the selection of a constant-rate model of diversification among species in the genus, suggests, however, that the cladogenetic speciation patterns observed in Pelekium are not comparable to some of the spectacular examples of tropical radiations reported in angiosperms. Rather, the results presented here point to the constant accumulation of diversity through time in Pelekium. This, combined with evidence for long-distance dispersal limitations in the genus, suggests that the similar patterns of species richness among tropical areas are better explained in terms of comparable rates of diversification across tropical regions than by the homogenization of species richness by recurrent migrations.

Biocrusts, inside and outside resource islands of Mimosa luisana (Leguminosae), improve soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics in a tropical semiarid ecosystem

In the semiarid Valley of Zapotitlán Salinas, Puebla, Mexico, biocrusts may be found inside Mimosa luisana Brandegee (Leguminosae)-resource islands (RI) or outside them (ORI). We studied the seasonal variation of the effect of three microenvironments: i) M. luisana-RI + biocrusts (Biocrusts-RI), ii) biocrusts outside M. luisana-RI (Biocrusts-ORI), and iii) Open areas (OA), on the soil C and N dynamics. In both rainy and dry seasons, moss species richness and cover were higher at Biocrusts-RI than in Biocrusts-ORI; opposite pattern to lichens. Soil organic C, labile C, and total N were the highest at Biocrusts-RI, intermediate at Biocrusts-ORI, and lowest at OA. This agrees with high microbial C and N, and C mineralization. We suggest that C availability regulated soil N availability under both Biocrusts-RI and Biocrusts-ORI by stimulating microbial biomass and N mineralization. Biocrusts-RI and Biocrusts-ORI did not differ in soil NH4+ and NO3− concentration, but N mineralization was higher at both microenvironments than in OA in the dry season. In contrast, in the rainy season, nitrification was higher and decreased from OA, Biocrusts-ORI to Biocrusts-RI. It supports that both Biocrusts-RI and Biocrusts-ORI may be forming “mantles of fertility”, and highlight their functional role on microbial dynamics and N transformations linked to changes in C availability, providing a hypothetical model for a better understanding of soil biology within this tropical semiarid ecosystem.

The interaction between elevational gradient and substratum reveals how bryophytes respond to the climate

AbstractQuestionsWhy does bryophyte richness increase along the elevational gradient? Even though a number of studies have documented the peculiar positive (or hump‐shaped) relationship between species richness and elevation in bryophytes, it is still unclear which underlying mechanisms cause the pattern.LocationNorway spruce forests, Italian Alps, South Tyrol.MethodsEight gradients from 900 to 1900 m a.s.l. and three different substrata (forest floor, deadwood, tree trunks) were examined. Three responses from the bryophyte communities were analysed: species richness of mosses and liverworts, functional diversity (considering the morphological characteristics of species) and β‐diversity (separating the two components: richness difference and species turnover).ResultsOn deadwood and tree trunks a quadratic relationship was found between bryophyte richness and elevation, but not on the forest floor. On all three substrata, the moss assemblages along the elevational gradient were dominated by the turnover process and not by the richness component of β‐diversity. In liverworts, the two components of β‐diversity were equally important. Temperature was the most important predictor of bryophyte richness, whereas model selection suggested that temperature, solar radiation and rainfall had equal effects on functional diversity.ConclusionsThe substrata affect the response of bryophytes to the elevational gradient. The bryophyte assemblages inhabiting the forest floor, being less subject to climatic variability than deadwood and tree trunks, could be less affected by the temperature increase where climate change is occurring.

Mosses in Ohio wetlands respond to indices of disturbance and vascular plant integrity

We examined the relationships between an index of wetland habitat quality and disturbance (ORAM score) and an index of vascular plant integrity (VIBI-FQ score) with moss species richness and a moss quality assessment index (MQAI) in 45 wetlands in three vegetation types in Ohio, USA. Species richness of mosses and MQAI were positively associated with ORAM and VIBI-FQ scores. VIBI-FQ score was a better predictor of both moss species richness and MQAI than was either ORAM score or vegetation type. This result was consistent with the strict microhabitat requirements for many moss species, which may be better assessed by VIBI-FQ than ORAM. Probability curves as a function of VIBI-FQ score were then generated for presence of groups of moss species having the same degree of fidelity to substrate and plant communities relative to other species in the moss flora (coefficients of conservatism, CCs). Species having an intermediate- or high degree of fidelity to substrate and plant communities (i.e., species with CC≥5) had a 50% probability of presence (P50) and 90% probability of presence (P90) in wetlands with intermediate- and high VIBI-FQ scores, respectively. Although moss species richness, probability of presence of species based on CC, and MQAI may reflect wetland habitat quality, the 95% confidence intervals around P50 and P90 values may be too wide for regulatory use. Moss species richness, MQAI, and presence of groups of mosses may be more useful for evaluating moss habitat quality in wetlands than a set of “indicator species.”

Bryoflora of the Itatiaia National Park along an elevation gradient: diversity and conservation

(Bryoflora of the Itatiaia National Park along an elevational gradient: diversity and conservation). Itatiaia National Park harbors a unique bryoflora due to presence of different forest formations and well-defined climatic and vegetation bands: Montane Forest, Upper Montane Forest, and High-Altitude Fields (Campos de Altitude). Analysis of bryophyte diversity was undertaken to elucidate the richness and floristic composition of the different Atlantic Forest formations and to investigate the influence of elevation gradients on the bryoflora. Data from literature, herbarium samples, and data banks of the state’s flora were consulted. Ten representative elevations were examined. The bryophyte diversity was high, comprising 519 taxa in 213 genera and 81 families (57 % of the total bryophyte flora known to Rio de Janeiro State, and 34 % of the Brazilian bryoflora). Bryoflora distribution was not uniform, showing differences in both species richness and floristic composition along an elevation gradient. The Montane Forest had the highest species richness (296), and numbers of exclusive taxa (172) and the Upper Montane Forest had more endemics species (47), which could be explained by its diversity of climatic, edaphic, and physiographic parameters. The 15 families with 59 % of the total number of species are also among the most species-rich families found in tropical America inventories. The species richness of mosses and liverworts reached their peaks at the mid-altitudinal range (2100–2200 m). The numbers of threatened species increased along the elevation gradient. These results emphasize the importance of the Atlantic Forest in southeastern Brazil to the conservation of bryophyte diversity, as well as the need to give priority to the protection of Upper Montane Forests and High-Altitude Fields.

Global gradients in moss and vascular plant diversity

Knowledge on the distribution and hotspots of different taxon groups is indispensable for improving the state of biodiversity protection. Our aim was to determine if the relations between major environmental factors and species richness of two plant groups, mosses and vascular plants differ on a global scale. The dependence of species richness on environmental factors in 50 regions, covering 17 % of the global terrestrial territory, was analysed with SAS statistical software. Species richness of vascular plants increases significantly towards the equator, but for mosses the increase is not significant. Species richness of mosses and vascular plants are significantly positively correlated only in the near equator zone. Although there were similarities in the trends of mosses and vascular plant diversities at a global scale, their relations with some factors differ with distance from the equator. The effect of precipitation on species richness is similar for both plant groups, but coastline length has a significant positive influence only on moss richness, whereas species richness of vascular plants was related strongly to area and energy input. Therefore, effective conservation policy at both local and global scale demands consideration of all diversity drivers of different taxon groups.