Mosambi Peel Research Articles

Co-fermentation exploiting glucose and xylose utilizing thermotolerant S. cerevisiae of highly lignified biomass for biofuel production: Statistical optimization and kinetic models

The present study assesses the potential of co-fermentation for the enhanced production of biofuels from a highly lignified biomass, Viz., Pomegranate Peel (PP) and Mosambi Peel (PP). The simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SScF) on brewer's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and modified strain S. cerevisiae XUSE were used for the ethanol production using RSM. The Box-Behnken design (BBD) model was used to execute 15 runs with independent factors of initial pH (5.5, 6.5, 7.5), yeast concentration (4%, 5% and 6%v/v), and co-culture yeast concentration (4%, 5% and 6%v/v). The highest bioethanol production was achieved by PP (35.460 ± 0.32 g/L) and MP (25.630 ± 0.40 g/L) on optimal variables of pH 6.5, with yeast concentration (5% v/v) and co-culture yeast concentration (5% v/v) for 120 hrs duration. Furthermore, the kinetic of logistic and modified Gompertz model analyzed the lag phase of PP and MP was 7.9 and 7.15 h, for which maximum bioethanol production (EtOH max-Pm) reported for PP (38.62 g/L) and MP (29.21 g/L), respectively. The study infers that SScF has great potential for producing high-titer ethanol commercially and supports waste-to-energy strategies.

Sustainable Bio-Based Adsorbents for Simultaneous and Efficient Removal of Hazardous Dyes from Aqueous Solutions.

Dyes provide a notable environmental issue as a result of their intrinsic poisonous and carcinogenic characteristics. An estimated 60,000 metric tons of dyes has been discharged into the environment, leading to a substantial increase in water pollution. The mitigation of these dyes is a substantial and intricate challenge. The primary objective of this research is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the adsorption of cationic dyes containing positively charged groups such as sulphonates, amines, and triphenylmethanes. The adsorption study was carried out using four different low-cost adsorbents derived from biowaste, specifically Groundnut Shell (GS), Mosambi Peel (MP), Mango Bark (MBARK), and Mango Leaves (ML). The adsorbent materials were characterized using FTIR, UV-Vis spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), point-of-zero charge (PZC), and BET techniques. The adsorption capacity was found to be between 1.5 and 2.2 mg/gm for Groundnut Shell, Mosambi Peel, Mango Bark, and Mango Leaves for individual dye removal (Crystal violet, Methylene blue, Rhodamine B, and Malachite green). It was observed that adsorbent derived from mango bark showed excellent adsorption (%) in a mono-component dye system and, thus, was explored for the simultaneous removal of a mixture of the same dyes. MBARK exhibited an excellent overall dye removal efficiency of 94.44% (Qe = 2.7 mg/g) for the dye mixture in 60 min. From a detailed kinetic investigation, it was concluded that the adsorption followed the pseudo-second-order model (R2= 0.99963 to 1 for different dyes and adsorbents) hinting at chemisorption. The effect of the pH of the analyte solution and the dosage of adsorbent was also studied for simultaneous removal. The isothermal studies demonstrated that the Langmuir adsorption model (R2 = 0.99416) was the best-fitted model, suggesting monolayer adsorption. The adsorption process was predicted to be governed by ion exchange, electrostatic interaction, hydrogen bonding, pi-pi interaction, etc., based on charge, functional groups, and pH of dyes and adsorbent. Thus, this study highlights the application of low-cost biowaste as a potential adsorbent for the mitigation of toxic industrial dyes present in wastewater.

Enhancing the Shelf Life of Tilapia Surimi with Mosambi Peel Extract: Protection against Oxidative, Structural, and Textural Degradation during Frozen Storage

Enhancing the Shelf Life of Tilapia Surimi with Mosambi Peel Extract: Protection against Oxidative, Structural, and Textural Degradation during Frozen Storage

Immobilization of microbial multienzyme preparation on calcium alginate beads as well as lyophilization with mosambi peel matrix improved its shelf-life and stability.

The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the functional activity and storage viability (at 4°C and 35°C) of an immobilized as well as lyophilized multienzyme, viz., pectinase, cellulase, and amylase (PCA) that was produced by Bacillus subtilis NG105 under solid state fermentation (SSF) at 35 ℃ for 10days using mosambi peel as a substrate. After SSF, the culture media was divided into two aliquots. From the first aliquot, the produced ME was extracted, precipitated, and further immobilized on calcium alginate beads (MEICA). In order to immobilize on mosambi peel matrix, the second aliquot was mixed with acetone and subsequently lyophilized (MELMP). Thus, ready MEICA and MELMP extracted 87.5 and 91.5% juice from mango pulp, respectively. In the reusability study, after 5 cycles, MEICA exhibited 23.8%, 24.4%, and 36.5% PCA activity, respectively. The PCA activity of MEICA and MELMP was examined after 60days of storage at 4 ℃. The result revealed that the PCA for MEICA declined from 100 to 66%, 58.2%, and 64.5%, respectively, while for MELMP, it dropped from 100 to 84.2%, 82.1%, and 69.7%, respectively. Further, after 60days of storage, the reduction of total protein content (TPC) in free multienzyme (FME), MEICA, and MELMP was 92.2%, 91.5%, and 36.3% observed, respectively. In the localization study, the maximum levels of multienzyme activity were found in cell exudates. This study demonstrated that immobilizing of multienzyme through lyophilization on waste substrates like mosambi peel boosted its stability and shelf-life along with greatly reducing the cost of products.

Precise utilization of fruit and vegetable waste as a substrate for the multienzyme production by Bacillus subtilis NG105 and Trichoderma asperelllum NG125

We earlier identified Bacillus subtilis NG105 and Trichoderma asperelllum NG125 isolated from fruit and vegetable wastes (FVWs) and established that multienzyme activity viz pectinase, cellulase and amylase (PC&A) activity was localized exclusively in cell exudates (CEs). In this study, we evaluated the best rotten or leftover FVWs of Bael, Guava, Mosambi, Beetroot, Banana, Aonla, Mango and Cabbage as potential substrates under solid-state fermentation (SSF) for isolated microbial strains to multi-enzyme production. The results showed that after SSF, the multienzyme activity of microbial CEs of both NG105 (394.6, 296.1, 341.4 μmol ml−1min−1 of PC&A respectively) and NG125 (420.5, 347.3, 330.7 μmol ml−1min−1 of PC&A respectively) extracted from mosambi peel performed best. The multienzyme present in CEs was further partially purified using five different chemical solvents; acetone, trichloroacetic acid, ammonium sulphate (70%), ethanol, and n-propanol. Results revealed that partially purified multienzyme (PPM) of both NG105 (415.2, 425.4, 414.3 μmol ml−1min−1 of PCA respectively) and NG125 strain (528.5, 509.2, 467.6 μmol ml−1min−1 of PC&A respectively) found to be highest in PPM extracted with acetone. The result indicates that mosambi peel may be used as the best FVWs as the substrate for our isolated strains for multienzyme production and the acetone purification method was well suited for the enhancement of the enzymatic activity. Moreover, the produced multienzyme (in CEs form) either in the system in which they are produced (eg. juice clarification) or extracted and partially purified form may be further utilized for other purposes (eg. food, animal feed, bio-fuel, detergent, industries etc).

Manipulation of protein structure and bonding pattern to improve the gelling and textural quality of surimi gels from silver carp: An incorporation of mosambi (Citrus limetta) peel extract.

Present investigation focused on mosambi peels extract (MPE) fortification (at 0% to 1.50%, w/w) in silver carp surimi to improve its gelling, textural and other physicochemical properties. The peels were extracted in ethanol (40-100% concentrations, v/v) and water. Out of which, 100% ethanol had significantly (p<0.05) higher yield and total phenolic, flavonoid, and tannin content. The fortification of MPE at optimum level (0.75%) improved the breaking force (55.1%) and gel strength (89.9%), significantly (p<0.05) compared to 0% MPE gel samples. Moreover, 0.75% MPE-fortified gels had higher hydrogen and hydrophobic bonds, water holding capacity and lower sulfhydryl groups and free amino groups. MHC bands in SDS-PAGE were disappeared completely in the MPE-fortified gels. The MPE-fortification affects the secondary structures of protein as resulted in shifting of peaks were observed in FTIR-spectra. SEM images showed relatively organized finer and denser gel network in MPE treated gels. The surimi gels fortified with 0.75% MPE demonstrated improved gelling properties, with an overall higher acceptability than that of unfortified the gels (0% MPE). Further, the fortified gels got enriched with bioactive polyphenols which are generally not present in surimi. Moreover, this study will provide an efficient way to utilize mosambi peel to develop functional surimi and surimi-based products with improved gel ability This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Bioactive compounds from the mosambi (Citrus limetta) peel and their fortification into tilapia surimi improve gelling and textural properties

Bioactive compounds from the mosambi (Citrus limetta) peel and their fortification into tilapia surimi improve gelling and textural properties

Potential sustainable electrochemical corrosion inhibition study of Citrus limetta on mild steel surface in aggressive acidic media

Green corrosion inhibitors are of recent interest because of their cost-effectiveness, biodegradability, and eco-friendly characteristics. Plant extracts have been recognized as valuable resources for the corrosion inhibition of metallic alloys. Out of those, one of the most important properties is to exhibit excellent corrosion inhibition on metal surfaces. In the present paper, the corrosion inhibition efficiency of Citrus limetta, commonly known as Mosambi peel extract on mild steel surfaces in an acidic environment has been reported through investigation by some electrochemical methods such as weight loss, potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance. The investigated green inhibitor was found to exhibit corrosion inhibition efficiency of 93% on the mild steel surfaces in hydrochloric acid media. The adsorption mechanism of the peel extract on a mild steel surface was interpreted and it confirms there is a combination of both physisorption and chemisorption associated with the interaction between the Citrus limetta peel extract and mild steel surface. The extract was characterized using fourier infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy.

Experimental Investigation on performance and emission of Mosambi peel pyro oil bending with Orange oil

Pyrolysis method of thermal degradation of carbonaceous of waste material extracts the pyro oil from the waste bio-mass like Mosambi peel pyro oil (MPO) in the without oxygen. In this procedure, the temperature at 750°C. The pyro oil obtained from Mosambi peel bio-mass can then blended with orange oil Diesel in three dissimilar ratios. Bio-oil blend DMO10 (80%Diesel oil +10%MPO+10%Orange oil), DMO20 (70%Diesel oil +20%MPO+10%Orange oil), and DMO30 (60%Diesel oil +30%MPO+10%Orange oil) they can prepare with the given volume. The blended of oil is mixed from a Mechanical Agitator rapidity of 950 rpm for 30 min. The properties of all the blends they can investigated as the Flash point, Fire point, Density, Viscosity, Calorific value, and FTIR analysis all these blends. Among these three samples, the best sample DMO10 was close to the properties of Diesel fuel. The results show that Brake Thermal efficiency is increased to DMO10 Bio-fuels and reduced Specific fuel consumptions and lesser the exhaust gas temperature. Emission shows that the considerable reduction for the Smoke, UHC, and CO emission and Nox they slightly increased when compared to Diesel fuel. The usage of Diesel fuel DMO10 blends of pyro oil can be used without any modification in the Diesel fuel Engine.

Exploring the potential of mosambi peel and sago powder in developing edible spoons

Systematic representation of converting mosambi peel added with sago into edible spoon.

Comparative Performance and Emissions of CI Engine Fuelled with Diesel and Blends of Mosambi Peel Pyro Oil, Methanol and Nano Rh2O3 with Diesel

This research article presents a comparative experimental study on the performance, exhaust emission and combustion characteristics of a CI engine fuelled with neat diesel and with three kinds of blends viz. MD10 (neat diesel with 10% mosambi peel pyro oil), MDM10 (neat diesel with 10% mosambi peel pyro oil and 10% methanol), MD10+Rh2O3 (neat diesel with 10% mosambi peel pyro oil and nano rhodium oxide fuel additive). The experiments were conducted on a direct injection single-cylinder water-cooled four-stroke diesel engine operated at a constant engine speed of 1500 rpm and under varied brake power conditions. The results showed that MD10+Rh2O3 outperformed the rest in terms of all the performance, emission and combustion characteristics. MD10+Rh2O3 was found to have achieved, 5% higher brake thermal efficiency, 18.5% reduced SFC and 8% reduced exhaust gas temperatures respectively. This fuel has also achieved 10.5%, 5.5%, 9.45%, 11% marginal drop in noxious pollutants such as CO (Carbon Monoxide), unburnt HC (Hydrocarbons), NOx and smoke respectively. Cylinder peak pressures, heat release rate, ignition delay and combustion duration of MD10+ Rh2O3 are recorded to be considerably improved. Thus, using the nanoparticle added mosambi peels pyro oil (NMPPO) blended with diesel as an alternative fuel could impart an eco-friendly, efficient and improved engine operation.

A research study on the combustion and performance of Mosambi peel pyro oil diesel blend with methanol enrichment in diesel engine

ABSTRACT Because of their great capability and consistent quality, Diesel engines are commonly employed in Industrial regions, Transportation sectors, and Agricultural fields. The main disadvantage of this engine is the excessive amount of smoke and nitrogen oxide emissions. As a result, Mosambi Peel Pyro oil (MPO) was blended in varying quantities with straight diesel. Methanol enrichment was used to test D90MPO10 (10% MPO +90% Diesel), D90MPO10M21 (10% MPO +90% Diesel +21% Methanol), and D90MPO10M22 (10% MPO +90% Diesel +22% Methanol)Oil parameters.The ultimate, proximate, and FTIR analyses, as well as viscosity, density, flash point, and fire point, are estimated. D90MPO10, D90MPO10M21, and D90MPO10M22 are diesel engine fuels, and D90MPO10M22‘s combustion and emission performance are investigated. It was shown that using D90MPO10 as pilot fuel and methanol as an induction fuel in diesel engines resulted in lower smoke levels (3.5%) and increased thermal efficiency (2.5%) with no significant Performance Degradation.

Ultrasound‐assisted protein extraction from mosambi peel support vector regression and genetic algorithm‐based modeling and optimization

This experiment aimed to optimize the protein extraction from mosambi peel powder using Support Vector Regression and Genetic Algorithm. The protein was extracted using the pH shift method with ultrasound treatment. A model based on Support Vector Regression (SVR) was created to predict protein yield extraction from mosambi peel powder based on extraction parameters such as particle size (150, 375, and 600 m), ultrasonic (US) time (5, 8, and 11 min), and amplitude (50%, 70%, and 90%). The model accurately predicted both seen and unseen data (R2 = 0.9934 and 0.989, respectively). The trained SVR model was optimized using the Genetic Algorithm to maximize the extraction yield. The optimized model predicted the yield of 55.24% at particle size 187.496 μm, time 10.79 min, and 53.15% amplitude. The model prediction was validated experimentally, and 54.24% yield with 90.2% crude protein was obtained at the optimal settings. The recovered mosambi peel protein isolate shows 26.3% emulsion stability, 1.34 ml/g water-holding capacity, 3.1 ml/g oil-holding capacity, and 30% foaming capacity. The XRD of the protein isolate suggested the dominating amorphous nature with a crystallinity index of 27.35. In conclusion, the mosambi peel protein isolate has good functional properties and can be used as a functional ingredient in the food industry. Practical Implications The fruit industry by-products have been used for the extraction of phytochemicals and dietary fibers. However, there are a few investigations on protein extraction from these by-products. Protein derived from these sources can be employed as a functional component in the development of new food products or to boost the protein content of existing ones. This will also aid farmers and producers by reducing waste and increasing the value of juice by-products.

Production of multi enzyme preparation by Bacillus subtilis using mosambi peel as substrate

Aim: To determine feasibility of using mosambi peel as substrate for multi enzyme production through microbial intervention. Methodology: Thirty-three bacterial isolates were isolated from biodegradable organic substrates and investigated in-vitro their biodegradable activities viz. pectinolytic, cellulolytic and amylolytic. The best performing bacterial isolate, exhibiting aforesaid activities were selected and identified using 16S rRNA technique. The factors, that influenced the fermentation, viz. temperature, pH and incubation period of bacterial culture were optimized for maximum production of multi enzymes viz. pectinase, cellulase and amylase using mosambi peel as substrate under solid-state fermentation conditions. Molecular weights of different enzymes present in multi-enzyme preparation were determined by SDS PAGE. The juice extraction efficiency of crude multi enzyme preparation was compared with that of pure commercial enzyme. Results: Out of thirty-three bacterial isolates, after primary and secondary screening, the best performing bacterial isolate was identified as Bacillus subtilis strain NG 105 (Genbank accession number MN493055). Higher enzyme activities were observed at pH 7.0, incubation temperature of 35°C and incubation period of 10 days for pectinase, cellulase and amylase using mosambi peel as substrate. The purified enzymes characterized by SDS-PAGE, revealed to have molecular mass of 65 kDa for pectinase, 50 kDa for cellulase and 55 kDa for amylase. Bagasse fibre was found to be the most suited matrix for immobilization. The juice extraction efficiency of partially purified crude multienzyme preparation was 88% of commercial pectinase. Interpretation: Mosambi peel is a suitable substrate for multienzyme production using Bacillus subtilis under solid-state fermentation condition.

Physicochemical, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of citrus peel essential oils

Essential oils are produced as secondary metabolites of aromatic plants and can be extracted from leaves, seeds or fruit peel of the plants. Citrus peel is a rich source of limonene which is antimicrobial in nature. The present study aimed to deal with the physicochemical, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of citrus peel essential oil from Citrus reticulate (mandarin orange), Citrus limetta (mosambi) and Citrus limon (lemon). The lemon peel oil had lower peroxide value (1.6 meq/kg of sample), saponification value (112.2 mg KOH/g of oil) and higher iodine value (116 gI2/100g oil) when compared with orange and mosambi peel essential oil. DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radical scavenging activity of citrus peel essential oil was measured and the result indicated that the total antioxidant activity of lemon peel oil was 89.2 % Radical Scavenging activity (RSA). The antifungal activity was assessed by agar dilution method, whereas the antibacterial property was assessed by the agar diffusion method. Lemon peel oil recorded better antimicrobial properties with minimum inhibitory concentration of 0.3% against Aspergillus flavus MTCC 277, 0.2% for Penicillium MTCC 1995 and Fusarium oxysporum MTCC 284. Likewise, the minimum inhibitory concentration of lemon peel oil against Staphylococcus aureus MTCC 96 was 0.3%; Salmonella enterica MTCC 733 and Erwinia sp MTCC 2760 was 0.5%; Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC 1688 and Escherichia coli MTCC 443 was 0.7%. This comparative study showed that lemon peel oil had better physicochemical and antioxidant property. Lemon peel oil can be used as a preservative in the food system as it exhibited antibacterial and antifungal activity.

Microbial production of multienzyme preparation from mosambi peel using Trichoderma asperellum.

Fruit and vegetable wastes create unhygienic conditions and pose a environmental pollution. The utilization of such wastes as carbon sources for production of enzyme with microbial intervention could be an ecofriendly and profitable approach, apart from diminishing the waste load. The present investigation focused on the feasibility of using mosambi (Citrus limetta) peel as substrate for multienzyme production (pectinase, cellulase and amylase) through microbial intervention. Fifteen fungi were isolated from organic waste and screened in vitro their potential of biodegradation of mosambi peel through enzymes production. The best performing isolate was selected and identified as Trichoderma asperellum NG-125 (accession number-MW287256). Conditions viz. temperature, pH, incubation time and nutrient addition were optimized for efficient enzymes production. The maximum enzyme activity (U ml-1min-1) of pectinase (595.7 ± 2.47), cellulase (497.3 ± 2.06) and amylase (440.9 ± 1.44) were observed at pH 5.5, incubation temperature of 30°C after 10days of fermentation. Moreover, macro-nutrients such as ammonium sulfate (0.1%) and potassium-di-hydrogen-ortho-phosphate (0.01%) further also enhanced the production of enzymes. The SDS-PAGE analysis of purified pectinase, cellulase and amylase using showed molecular mass of 43, 66 and 33kDa, respectively. The enzyme retention activity (ERA) of aforesaid enzymes was also tested with four different natural fiber matrices viz., bagasse, rice husk, paddy straw and wheat straw. Among these, the maximum ERA was observed on bagasse matrix (pectinase-56.35%, cellulose-77.68% and amylase 59.54%). Enzymatic juice clarification yield obtained with test enzyme was 75.8%, as compared to 80.5% of commercial enzyme. The result indicates that T. asperellum may be exploited as multifaceted biocatalysis.

Mosambi (Citrus limetta) peel and Sago based biodegradable film: Development and characterization of physical, water barrier and biodegradation properties

The biodegradable film was developed in this study by utilizing Mosambi peel and Sago powder in various blends (0 to 100%). Sago starch was used as a co-biopolymer along with the addition of glycerol (5% v/v) and gum arabic (10% v/v). The developed film was characterized for the various Physico-chemical properties including thickness, moisture content, ash content, color, water solubility, and water absorption capacity. An increase in Sago starch concentration caused a significant increase in moisture content, water absorption, and solubility of the films. A better mechanical property was observed in Sample 5 (Sago 50% Peel 50%) which recorded the highest folding endurance and retraction ratio, signifying greater film strength. The developed film, kept for 15 days, showed 46.45 to 64.42% biodegradability in soil burial tests. Conclusively, both Mosambi peel and Sago at an equal ratio led to the development of biodegradable film with attributes suitable for the packaging material.

Mosambi peel powder incorporation in meat products: Effect on physicochemical properties and shelf life stability

The current study aimed to utilize the mosambi peel, a by-product of the juice industry in buffalo meat products to enhance their functional and physicochemical properties and more importantly the fiber content of meat. Sausages and patties were prepared from buffalo meat incorporated with mosambi peel powder (MPP) and were evaluated for various physicochemical, cooking, and sensory qualities along with storage stability. The lean meat was replaced with MPP at a concentration of 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 %. The addition of MPP enhanced the fiber content of both sausages and patties and along with the fat and moisture content. A decrease in red color and increases in yellow color was observed as indicated by the decrease in L and a* value and increase in b* value. High cooking yield and emulsion stability with less dimensional change indicated that incorporation of MPP enhanced the cooking qualities of both sausages and patties. It was also observed that MPP incorporated sausage and patties had a hard texture compared to the control. Up to 6 % MPP concentration the product had good overall acceptability and but decreased beyond 6 %. Storage stability in terms of thiobarbituric acid, yeast, and mold and total plate count showed that incorporation of MPP increased the shelf life of sausages and patties. It was concluded that MPP has the potential to be used as a functional ingredient in meat products as MPP enhanced fiber content and the functional properties along with improved storage stability of meat products.

Enzyme production from different fruit and vegetable waste using lactic acid fermentation

Laboratory experiment conducted with the objective of utilizing fruit and vegetable wastes and by-products viz., mango stone, citrus and mixed fruit peels, mosambi peel, banana pseudo-stem cuttings and cauliflower leaves, left over in the open in the fruit and vegetable mandies and processing industries or thrown in rivers for enzyme production showed highest pectinase, cellulose and amylase activity of 0.7605, 021465 and 0.3174 U μmol ml-1 min-1 in mosambi peel on 7th day of Laetobacillus plantarum inculation and 05289 & 0.5218, 0.4543 & 0.4314 and 0.4424 & 0.3626 U m-1 min-1 in the mango waste after 13 and 28 days of L. plantarum inoculation, respectively. The Lactobacillus counts were highest (>108) in animal feed from mixed fruit pomace and mango stone waste till 13 days of incubation.

Comparative studies on removal of heavy metals from electroplating wastewater through soil aquifer treatment (SAT) in conjunction with adsorbents.

The study demonstrates the efficiency of the soil aquifer treatment (SAT) towards removal of heavy metals within electroplating wastewater thereby rendering it suitable for ground water discharge. The unique proposition of this research is to use a combination of soil and adsorbent properties to enhance the remediation of heavy metals such as nickel, copper and zinc. A comparative study through statistical analysis is employed to illustrate the effectiveness of the various SAT systems build using various combinations of SM and SC soil types along with bioadsorbents such as eucalyptus leaves, sawdust and Mosambi peel. Further, the mass balance analysis of heavy metals is carried out to comprehend the course of expulsion. The study, through a statistical approach, endorses that the SAT in conjunction with adsorbent gives much better removal efficiency than the SAT without adsorbent. Additional removal efficiency of 14% to 30% can be achieved with introduction of adsorbents within the SAT system. The optimal removal efficiency of nickel, copper and zinc was observed to be at 87, 98 and 93% respectively when passed through the combination of SM soil with sawdust.