Landscape Mosaic Research Articles

Conservation Corridors With Many Small Waterbodies Support Dragonfly Functional Diversity Across a Transformed Landscape Mosaic

ABSTRACTAimHuman activities pose many challenges to freshwater biodiversity. Among these, is landscape transformation, such as conversion of natural grassland to plantation forestry, impacting both terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity. Functional diversity measures provide substantial information on current and emerging impacts on biological communities, and aid conservation decisions relative to anthropogenic impacts. We determined (1) environmental similarities among 10 freshwater biotope types; (2) whether freshwater biotopes in conservation corridor networks support equal levels of functional richness and divergence compared with an extensive neighbouring protected area; (3) whether certain biotopes are more important for maintaining functional richness and divergence than others; and (4) whether associations between traits and biotope types could be identified.LocationThe northeastern coastal region of South Africa.MethodsUsing dragonflies as model organisms, and data from 140 freshwater lotic and lentic sites, we investigated the distribution of dragonfly traits across a plantation forestry‐natural grassland landscape mosaic with a range of biotope types.ResultsLake sites were different in their environmental conditions compared with the other biotopes. Environmental conditions were variable among the other biotope types and were difficult to distinguish. Freshwater biotopes in the conservation corridors supported equal levels of functional richness and divergence compared with those in the protected area. Overall, dragonfly functional richness and divergence were low at lake sites and wallows, while all other biotopes supported high levels of functional richness and divergence. Trait associations were complex across the waterscape and driven by habitat selection, flight behaviour and ecological sensitivity.Main ConclusionsMaintaining a mosaic of small lentic and lotic habitats would best support dragonfly conservation in this transformed landscape. A combination of biotopes offers a wide range of environmental conditions essential for conserving the full range of dragonfly traits and species across the region.

Movement of amphibians in a habitat mosaic of agriculture landscape

Movement of amphibians in a habitat mosaic of agriculture landscape

Microhabitat preferences in the European green lizard (Lacerta viridis): implications for conservation management of isolated populations

The European green lizard (Lacerta viridis) populations in Bohemia, Czech Republic, are isolated by more than 150 km from the northern border of the continuous range of the species. These populations are fragmented and further isolated from each other. In this landscape mosaic, they are tied to specific habitats located in deeply incised river valleys (the so-called river phenomenon) and thus may be viewed as stenotopic. The research site is located on the northern edge of the city of Prague. Since 1998, this site has been the subject of long-term conservation management aimed at strengthening and maintaining the abundance of the local L. viridis population. To formulate recommendations for the management of other isolated L. viridis populations, we performed a spatial analysis of the localities with observed individuals to determine and evaluate the significance of the chosen biotic and abiotic factors for habitat discrimination. We applied principal components and discriminant function analyses and examined the effect of 24 variables on the species’ presence. The results revealed the principal role of the presence of rock debris and hiding places for lizard occurrence. The strongest negative predictors were the presence of tall grass and high vegetation coverage. We discuss the applicability of our findings in both the theory and practice of species conservation and population management.

Arid, mosaic environments during the Plio-Pleistocene transition and early hominin dispersals in northern Africa

The earliest archaeological evidence from northern Africa dates to ca. 2.44 Ma. Nevertheless, the palaeoenvironmental setting of hominins living in this part of the continent at the Plio-Pleistocene transition remains poorly documented, particularly in comparison to eastern and southern Africa. The Guefaït-4 fossil site in eastern Morocco sheds light on our knowledge of palaeoenvironments in northern Africa. Our study reveals the oldest known presence of C4 plants in the northern part of the continent in a mosaic landscape that includes open grasslands, forested areas, wetlands, and seasonal aridity. This diverse landscape and resource availability likely facilitated the occupation of the region by mammals, including potentially hominins. Our regional-scale study provides a complementary perspective to global-scale studies and highlights the importance of considering the diversity of microhabitats within a given region when studying species-dispersal dynamics.

Wild pigs influence tropical forest soil microbial communities in a forest-agriculture mosaic landscape

Edge effects, the altered abiotic and biotic conditions on the borders of natural areas, have rarely been linked to altered soil biota, which shape ecosystem processes including carbon storage, biogeochemical cycling, and plant performance. Here, we investigated if increased wildlife populations (their increase mediated by foraging in nearby oil palm plantations) affect soil biota when they move between plantations and natural habitats. We used a 22-year fenced exclusion experiment in a primary rain forest in Peninsular Malaysia. We found that the presence of wildlife (mainly native pigs; Sus scrofa) was associated with greater bacterial diversity, an altered bacterial community composition, and indications of a reduced abundance of symbiotic ectomycorrhizal fungi. There were only minor effects of pigs on soil chemistry or microclimate, so we suggest that changes in soil communities are driven by pigs’ leaf litter removal and alterations to plant composition. Our study highlights that indirect effects from agriculture can be induced by wildlife more than1 km into protected areas and this could have important repercussions for ecosystem processes and plant-soil feedbacks.

Deciphering Permian wetland deposits of the Parnaíba Basin through an integrated study of lithofacies and palynofacies in Western Gondwana

During the Permian, the northwestern portion of the supercontinent Gondwana experienced significant climate changes, among which the increasing aridity in the Parnaíba Basin, located between Brazil's northern and northeastern regions. The marine influence associated with the Panthalassa Ocean, evident in the Silurian and Devonian deposits, was progressively attenuated in the late Carboniferous, culminating in extensive continental deposits during the Permian and the Early Triassic in this region. In this paper, we present the first palynofacies analysis of the Permian Pedra de Fogo Formation, conducted concurrently with the description and association of sedimentary facies from outcrops located in the state of Maranhão, southwest of the Parnaíba Basin. A total of 15 m of sedimentary succession was described, and 28 samples were selected for palynofacies analysis. As a result, we identified six sedimentary facies, which were grouped into two distinct facies associations: Fa1 – Central Lake and Fa2 – Playa Lake. The palynofacies analysis considered the sedimentary organic matter, classifying it into amorphous organic matter, phytoclasts (subdivided into eight subgroups), and palynomorphs (with six subgroups). Integrating the results enabled an understanding of the depositional context, which is closely related to water dynamics and climate seasonality. The shallow lake system interpreted during the wet phases recorded interruptions in the normal sedimentation of the central lake due to turbidite deposits associated with ephemeral rivers. Conversely, during dry phases, salt precipitation occurred with subsequent substitution and aerial exposure of the surface when the water balance was negative. Eodiagenetic events were inferred and are considered throughout the article. The alternation of the hydrological regime allowed the deposition in proximal, transitional, and distal environments, creating a distinctive mosaic of wetland landscapes. The data presented indicate humid conditions within a context of increasing aridity in the studied location, particularly in the upper part of the Pedra de Fogo Formation.

The effects of land cover transition and its patch mosaics on soil erosion using geospatial technology in South Wollo, Ethiopia

Soil erosion has been a significant threat to agricultural productivity, dam sustainability, and ecosystem services in the highlands of Ethiopia. Despite some watershed-specific research on this problem, the spatiotemporal distribution of soil erosion risks is still rarely assessed in South Wollo. This study aims to monitor land cover changes, analyze landscape mosaics, and estimate soil loss in South Wollo from 1990 to 2020. The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) was utilized to estimate soil loss. Key informant interviews and field observations were conducted to gain further insights into land cover change and soil erosion. The results showed that agricultural land use was dominant, covering 50.75 % of the study area in 1990 and it continued to expand at an annual rate of 1.73 %, primarily on shrubland and grassland. The landscape structure was more heterogeneous in the north compared to the central and southern areas. In 1990, the mean soil loss was 21.13 t ha-1yr−1, totaling 41.53 million tons. By 2020, These figures had increased to 28.97 t ha-1yr−1 and 49.86 million tons, respectively. Areas experiencing very severe soil erosion (>50 t ha-1yr−1) expanded from 10.81 % (1990) to 13.57 % (2020). The magnitude of soil loss also differed among land cover types, with the highest rates observed in bare land (>85 t ha-1yr−1), followed by agricultural land (>30 t ha-1yr−1). Soil loss factors and landscape metrics exhibited a significant correlation with soil loss, though the strength and direction of these interactions varied. Land cover change and its associated soil erosion were primarily exacerbated by policy factors, including tenure insecurity and disregard for farmers’ indigenous conservation knowledge. This study offers valuable insights into the trends of land cover transitions, landscape structure, and soil loss. It will help guide sustainable land management, aimed at increasing green legacy and reducing soil loss.

A fossil pinnate palm leaf (Arecaceae, subfam. Arecoideae) from Island Lagoon, in the arid zone of South Australia

ABSTRACT Fossil pinnate palm leaves (Arecaceae, subfam. Arecoideae) are described from the Eocene or Miocene Island Lagoon fossil site near Woomera in the arid zone of South Australia. These leaves are described as a new species, Phoenicites insula-lacuna and shown to share morphological similarities to the extant genus Archontophoenix (subtr. Archontophoenicinae), endemic to eastern Australia. This fossil record constitutes a significant temporal and geographic range extension for Archontophoenicinae and likely Archontophoenix. The presence in Australia of Archontophoenicinae as early as the Eocene or more likely Miocene, is in accordance with molecular analyses that propose dispersal of this clade into Australia from New Guinea, with subsequent dispersal from Australia to New Caledonia and divergence of the Archontophoenix and Chambeyronia lineages during this interval of time. Previously reported co-occurring myrtaceous woody fruits from Island Lagoon and proximal-coeval silcrete floras previously referred to Angophora, Callistemon, Eucalyptus, Melaleuca and fossils of other sclerophyllous taxa such as Banksia are consistent with this palm being part of a landscape mosaic with riparian rainforest that included mesic plants growing within wider sclerophyllous forest or woodland vegetation comparable to the eastern coastal zone of modern-day Australia and the modern range of Archontophoenix.

Rice fields play a complementary role within the landscape mosaic supporting structurally and functionally distinct waterbird communities

Rice fields play a complementary role within the landscape mosaic supporting structurally and functionally distinct waterbird communities

Culture, climate, and landscape shape the savanna and wetland mosaic of the Bolivian Amazon

Environmental archeology of the Amazon has conventionally focused on terrestrial spaces, investigating crop domestication and production, agroforestry and anthropogenic soils. Aquatic environments, however, have been given less attention by archeologists and paleoenvironmental scientists alike. The Llanos de Mojos, a 135,000 km2 basin of the Amazon and mosaic landscape of savannas, wetlands and forests, has long been recognized for its archeological record. A variety of anthropogenic earthworks across the region show significant landscape modifications from Pre-Columbian times used for transportation, resource production and control of floodwaters. Here, we investigate the use and management of wetlands, and their interaction in the wider Mojos mosaic landscape, by integrating extensive archeological, paleoenvironmental and GIS datasets. We demonstrate that past human modifications of the landscape enabled the creation of complex wetland-terrestrial system of resource production, in which wetlands were managed, complementary to terrestrial crop production and agroforestry. Across short distances (40 km), land use strategies were heterogeneous despite being connected in time and space. Additionally, mixed wetland-terrestrial resource production was relatively stable during periods of lower rainfall from 1200–1500 CE, implying that this strategy provided flexibility under conditions of variable climate. The wetlands of the Llanos de Mojos are the result of millennia of human intervention and recognition of this deep heritage is required to make informed management and conservation decisions to ensure the future of this culturally and biologically diverse region.

Vegetation drives soil microbial metabolic limitation through modifications of soil properties and microbial biomass during desert grassland-shrubland state anthropogenic transition

Shrub encroachment became widespread in grass-dominated ecosystem regions. However, there is still limited attention on the changes in plant-soil system C:N:P stoichiometry and soil microbial metabolic limitation status caused by anthropogenic encroachment of shrubs in the desert grassland of northwest China, as well as their driving mechanisms. In this study, we quantified the C:N:P stoichiometry of plant-litter-soil, soil physicochemical properties, microbial biomass, extracellular enzyme activities, and microbial metabolic limitation status during the anthropogenic transition from grassland to shrubland. Here, our results showed that anthropogenic shrub encroachment reduced plant C, soil water, and soil nutrient contents while increasing N and P contents in both plants and litter. The correlation also suggested that litter nutrient content relied on plant nutrients, while plants depleted soil nutrients. Secondly, with the gradient of shrub encroachment, the stoichiometry (except for soil C:N ratio) of plant-litter-soil showed a decreasing trend and a positive correlation. Furthermore, our study indicated that shrub encroachment reduced soil microbial biomass and extracellular enzyme activities, altering microbial stoichiometry and patterns of enzyme allocation. Redundancy analysis revealed that microbial biomass, extracellular enzyme activities, and stoichiometry were mainly driven by soil water content, nutrient content, and nutrient stoichiometry. The vector-threshold element ratio model revealed that along the transition from desert grassland to shrubland, soil microbial nutrient limitation shifted from P to N, while energy (C) limitation intensified. The soil microbial metabolic limitation was driven jointly by plants and litter through modifications of soil properties and microbial biomass. Additionally, soil properties played a crucial role among these factors. In summary, over the past 40 years, shrub anthropogenic encroachment has formed a desert grassland-shrub mosaic landscape, depleted soil water and nutrient contents, and altered ecological stoichiometry and microbial metabolic limitation patterns in northwest China. This study provides new insights into the C, N, and P cycling in plant-soil systems following shrub encroachment caused by global climate change and anthropogenic disturbances.

Trends in vervet monkey admissions to a wildlife rehabilitation centre: a reflection of human-wildlife conflict in an urban-forest mosaic landscape

Trends in vervet monkey admissions to a wildlife rehabilitation centre: a reflection of human-wildlife conflict in an urban-forest mosaic landscape

Complex stands in forested tropical landscapes harbor more endemic biodiversity and ecosystem functions

Transformation of forests into agricultural lands threatens biodiversity and ecosystem functions globally. In the biodiversity hotspot Madagascar, key ecosystem functions along with highly endemic flora and fauna are under threat. Comprehensive studies identifying determinants of biodiversity and ecosystem function losses are lacking, with no studies accounting for endemic species richness across multiple taxa. We assess how plot-scale stand structural attributes (basal area, leaf area index, diameter diversity, and tree species richness) and landscape-scale forest cover influence biodiversity (species richness of butterflies, ants, birds, reptiles, amphibians, herbaceous plants, and multidiversity) and ecosystem functions (soil organic carbon, predation rate, acoustic diversity, and multifunctionality) in the tropical mosaic landscape of northeastern Madagascar. Complexly structured stands with a larger basal area and/or a higher tree species richness promoted greater endemic multidiversity (R² = 0.70), soil organic carbon, and acoustic diversity. However, our models did not indicate significant explanatory variables for multidiversity (R² = 0.25) and multifunctionality (R² = 0.43). Landscape-scale forest cover significantly favored endemic bird species richness. Our findings highlight that a simplified stand structure, resulting from land-use change, substantially reduces endemic biodiversity and ecosystem functions in this historically forested region. Conservation actions should aim at maintaining complex stand structure in forests and agroforests, while restoration interventions should focus on re-building such structures.

Vegetation, Climate and Habitability in the Marseille Basin (SE France) circa 1 Ma

The environment of the Marseille basin in the Early Pleistocene was reconstructed through a multiproxy study of fluvial tufa deposits. Palaeomagnetic measurements revealed the Jaramillo subchron and dated the tufa to within the 0.8–1.5 Ma interval, probably between 0.9 and1.2 Ma. Sedimentological studies show varied depositional environments comprising natural dams formed by accumulations of plants promoting the development of upstream water bodies. The very negative δ13C values indicate that the Marseille tufa is not travertine sensu stricto but tufa deposited by local cold-water rivers. Palynological analyses indicate a semi-forested, diverse, mosaic vegetation landscape dominated by a Mediterranean pine and oak forest. Along the streams, the riparian forest was diverse and included Juglans, Castanea, Platanus and Vitis. The potential diet reconstructed from pollen was varied. The most surprising discovery was the presence of proto-cereals, which could potentially enrich the diet with carbohydrates. The identification of spores of coprophilous fungi seems to indicate the presence in situ of large herbivore herds. It is possible that, as in Anatolia, the disturbance of ecosystems by large herbivores was responsible for the genetic mutation of Poaceae and the appearance of proto-cereals. Climatic reconstructions indicate a slightly cooler and wetter climate than the present.

A trait-based ecological perspective on the soil microbial antibiotic-related genetic machinery

Antibiotic resistance crisis dictates the need for resistance monitoring and the search for new antibiotics. The development of monitoring protocols is hindered by the great diversity of resistance factors, while the “streetlight effect” denies the possibility of discovering novel drugs based on existing databases. In this study, we address these challenges using high-throughput environmental screening viewed from a trait-based ecological perspective. Through an in-depth analysis of the metagenomes of 658 topsoil samples spanning Europe, we explored the distribution of 241 prokaryotic and fungal genes responsible for producing metabolites with antibiotic properties and 485 antibiotic resistance genes. We analyzed the diversity of these gene collections at different levels and modeled the distribution of each gene across environmental gradients. Our analyses revealed several nonparallel distribution patterns of the genes encoding sequential steps of enzymatic pathways synthesizing large antibiotic groups, pointing to gaps in existing databases and suggesting potential for discovering new analogues of known antibiotics. We show that agricultural activity caused a continental-scale homogenization of microbial antibiotic-related machinery, emphasizing the importance of maintaining indigenous ecosystems within the landscape mosaic. Based on the relationships between the proportion of the genes in the metagenomes with the main predictors (soil pH, land cover type, climate temperature and humidity), we illustrate how the properties of chemical structures dictate the distribution of the genes responsible for their synthesis across environments. With this understanding, we propose general principles to facilitate the discovery of antibiotics, including principally new ones, establish abundance baselines for antibiotic resistance genes, and predict their dissemination.

Condition of linear landscape elements improves with contiguity to protected habitats: Empirical evidence useful for agroecosystem accounting and restoration

In Mediterranean Europe, both intensification and abandonment of traditional cultural practices represent main drivers for the loss of natural and semi-natural elements in agricultural settings. Once common in rural landscapes, these habitats have to be conserved or restored to ensure resilience and resistance of agroecosystems against biodiversity loss and socio-ecological changes. In particular, linear landscape elements (LE) fall among the high-biodiversity landscape features that require to be increased in agricultural lands to facilitate species mobility and provide a wide range of ecosystem services. However, within the framework of environmental accounting procedures, there is still a need for a thorough methodology to assess conditions of LE and, subsequently, of the hosting agroecosystems. The present research is therefore aimed at (i) proposing a method for a thorough assessment of LE conditions, with a special focus on biodiversity support capacity, (ii) investigating the potential effect of extrinsic determinants on LE conditions, such as contiguity to protected habitats and governance framework, and (iii) identifying useful parameters to guide LE ecological restoration actions. Based on different structural, compositional and landscape indicators, the proposed assessment method was tested in eight administrative units of two Mediterranean Europe countries. In the study sites, favorable LE conditions were found to be strongly associated with contiguity to protected habitats, by showing marked structural continuity, dominance of trees, active dynamics, and good quality of the surrounding landscape mosaic. Potential applications of the results have been finally explored in both ecosystem accounting and ecological restoration processes.

Old-growth forests are critical to safeguard tropical birds in complex landscape mosaics exposed to slash-and-burn agriculture

ContextSlash-and-burn agriculture generates landscape mosaics composed of different land uses. Ecological theory postulates that in these mosaics, the structure of species assemblages depends on both local- and landscape-scale factors, but their relative role remains poorly known.ObjectivesUnderstanding the relative importance of local and landscape variables for bird assemblages in landscape mosaics of the Mayan tropical forest, Mexico.MethodsWe evaluated the effect of two local variables (land use type and tree basal area) and two landscape variables (old-growth forest cover and human proximity) on bird abundance and diversity, separately assessing forest and non-forest birds. As species extirpation may accelerate when forest loss exceeds certain limits (extinction thresholds), we assessed forest loss effects with linear and nonlinear models.ResultsWe recorded 1867 birds from 118 species in four land-use types (old-growth forest, secondary forest, burned lands, and agricultural lands). Land-use type and surrounding old-growth forest cover better predicted bird abundance and diversity than tree basal area and human proximity. Agricultural lands showed the lowest abundance and diversity of forest species, but the highest abundance and diversity of non-forest species. We found no support for the extinction threshold hypothesis. Yet, independently of the land use, old-growth forest loss decreased the diversity of forest species and increased the abundance and diversity of non-forest species. Human proximity also decreased total bird abundance, especially because of the loss of forest species.ConclusionsOur findings highlight the key role played by old-growth forests for preserving bird assemblages in landscape mosaics exposed to slash-and-burn agriculture.

Variation in Soil CO2 Fluxes across Land Cover Mosaic in Typical Tundra of the Taimyr Peninsula, Siberia

Increased warming in the Arctic is of great concern. This is particularly due to permafrost degradation, which is expected to accelerate microbial breakdown of soil organic carbon, with its further release into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2). The fine-scale variability of CO2 fluxes across highly mosaic Arctic tundra landscapes can provide us with insights into the diverse responses of individual plant communities to environmental change. In the paper, we contribute to filling existing gaps by investigating the variability of CO2 flux rates within different landscape units for dominant vegetation communities and plant species across typical tundra of the southern part of the Taimyr Peninsula, Siberia. In general, the variability of soil CO2 flux illustrates a four-fold increase from non-vascular vegetation, mainly lichens and mosses (1.05 ± 0.36 µmol m−2 s−1), towards vascular plants (3.59 ± 0.51 µmol m−2 s−1). Barren ground (“frost boils”) shows the lowest value of 0.79 ± 0.21 µmol m−2 s−1, while considering the Arctic “browning” phenomenon, a further substantial increase of CO2 flux can be expected with shrub expansion. Given the high correlation with top soil temperature, well-drained and relatively dry habitats such as barren ground and non-vascular vegetation are expected to be the most sensitive to the observed and projected temperature growth in the Arctic. For mixed vegetation and vascular species that favor wetter conditions, soil moisture appears to play a greater role. Based on the modeled seasonal pattern of soil CO2 flux and precipitation records, and applying the rainfall simulations in situ we outlined the role of precipitation across enhanced CO2 emissions (i.e., the “Birch” effect). We found that a pulse-like growth of soil CO2 fluxes, observed within the first few minutes after rainfall on vegetated plots, reaches 0.99 ± 0.48 µmol m−2 s−1 per each 1 mm of precipitation, while barren ground shows 55–70% inhibition of CO2 emission during the first several hours. An average additive effect of precipitation on soil CO2 flux may achieve 7–12% over the entire growing season, while the projected increased precipitation regime in the Arctic may strengthen the total CO2 release from the soil surface to the atmosphere during the growing season.

Do Mesocarnivores Respond to the Seasonality in Management Practices in an Agroforestry Landscape?

In the Mediterranean, we find a mosaic of natural and cultural landscapes, where a variety of forest management practices created intermediate disturbance regimes that potentially increased biodiversity values. Nonetheless, it is essential to understand the species’ long-term response to the dynamic management in agroecosystems, since the species tolerance to disturbance can change throughout the life cycle. Mammalian carnivores can be sensitive to human disturbance and are an essential part of ecosystems due to their regulatory and community structuring effects. We investigated the spatial response of five mesocarnivores species to spatially- and temporally- varying management practices in an agroforestry landscape. More specifically, we assessed the mesocarnivores’ temporal changes in space use by implementing multi-season occupancy models in a Bayesian framework, using seasonal camera-trapping surveys for a 2-year period. All species had a weak response of local extinction to forestry management and livestock grazing pressure. For forest-dwelling species, occupancy was higher where productivity of perennial vegetation was high, while colonization between seasons was positively associated with vegetation cover. For habitat generalist species, we found that occupancy in the wet season increased with the distance to cattle exclusion plots. Most of these plots are pine stands which are subject to forestry interventions during winter. During the 2-year period we found seasonal fluctuations in occupancy for all species, with an overall slight decrease for three mesocarnivore species, while for the two forest-dwelling species there was an increase in occupancy between years. The weak species response to management practices supports the importance of traditional management for upholding a diverse mesocarnivore community in agroforestry systems but could also reflect these species’ ecological plasticity and resilience to disturbance.

Revisiting the Landscape Mosaic model.

The landscape mosaic model quantifies and maps the spatial juxtaposition of different land uses. It provides a landscape perspective of anthropic threats posed by agriculture and urban development, and the spatial-temporal shifting of the landscape mosaic indicates landscapes where anthropic intensity has changed. We use the U.S. Geological Survey provided National Land Cover Database (NLCD) for the years 2001 and 2021 to derive the landscape mosaic at five analysis scales. To improve earlier implementations of the model, we introduce the heatmap, a flexible scheme providing more thematic reporting opportunities and allowing for better quantitative summary reporting across analysis scales as well as for temporal trends. The results are exemplified at regional scale for the Atlanta metropolitan area. We use the improved model to investigate the land cover context over time and at different analysis scales and show how custom color tables detail different thematic features of the landscape mosaic, including the degree and change of anthropic intensity. We conclude with a discussion of potential applications in ecology, landscape planning, and restoration to illustrate the benefits of the revised landscape mosaic model. All assessment tools are now available in open-source software packages.