Mosaic Features Research Articles

The hysteresis loop on the near-threshold fatigue crack growth curves generated by stepped load reduction and constant-amplitude loading methods in a Ni-based superalloy

Fatigue crack growth (FCG) tests were conducted on compact tension specimens made of a Ni-based superalloy to investigate the near-threshold FCG behaviors using both the stepped load reduction method (LRM) and the constant-amplitude loading method (CALM) at three stress ratios (R = 0.05, 0.5 and 0.7) under ambient condition. It is found that after the FCG threshold being approached by the LRM, a remarkable hysteresis plateau occurs on the subsequent FCG curve generated by the CALM for R ≤ 0.5, resulting a hysteresis loop on the near-threshold region, but the situation becomes complicated at R = 0.7. In the appearance of hysteresis plateau, the FCG life to fracture can be over 107 cycles longer than that without hysteresis plateau. For FCG rate faster than 10−8 m/cycle, the fractography is dominated by transgranular feature which is insensitive to the microstructure of the alloy. In the hysteresis plateau region where FCG rate is lower than 10−9 m/cycle, fractography shows a wide optical dark zone where microstructure-sensitive crystallographic facet feature dominates, while when no hysteresis at R = 0.7, the optical dark zone is too narrow for the fracture feature transition so that crystallographic facet, transgranular as well as mosaic features can be observed simultaneously. As FCG in the hysteresis plateau under the CALM can be significantly slower than that under the stepped LRM, it is recommend that the stepped LRM should be used to generate the material basic FCG curves for fatigue life prediction of high durability structures.

Early Cretaceous troodontine troodontid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Ohyamashimo Formation of Japan reveals the early evolution of Troodontinae

A new troodontid dinosaur, Hypnovenator matsubaraetoheorum gen. et sp. nov., is described based on an articulated postcranial skeleton recovered from the fluvial deposits of the Albian Ohyamashimo Formation of the Sasayama Group in Tambasasayama City, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan. Hypnovenator is distinguished from other troodontids by four autapomorphies and a combination of additional features. Our phylogenetic analysis positions Hypnovenator as the oldest and one of the most basal troodontines, forming a clade with Gobivenator mongoliensis. The discovery of Hypnovenator suggests that small-bodied maniraptorans with a sleeping posture were common not only in environments with volcanic and eolian events or alluvial systems but also in fluvial systems. Geometric morphometric analysis of manual ungual phalanges shows that manual ungual phalanges I and III of Hypnovenator exhibit considerable morphological variation but are functionally similar, which differs from those of non-troodontine troodontids, reflecting the transition of manual motion within Troodontinae. Hypnovenator also has mosaic features in the pes related to cursoriality. This study reveals that asymmetrical arctometatarsus occurred by the Albian, and some morphological changes, such as shorter digit IV than digit III and non-ungual phalanges of digits III with roller joints and digit IV with weakly ginglymoid articulation, arose during the early Late Cretaceous.

Dense Neural Network for Classification of Seafloor Sediment using Backscatter Mosaic Feature

Water transportation plays a vital role in global economic activities, facilitating more than 85% of international trade and serving as a cost-effective and essential means to fulfill the demand for goods and services. Similarly, the Benoa Port, situated in the southern part of Denpasar City, operates in the same manner. By utilizing Multibeam Echo Sounder (MBES) backscatter data, backscatter mosaics can be generated to identify various seafloor sediment types, which consist of rock fragments, minerals, and organic materials. The characteristics of these sediments, such as grain size, density, composition, and others, can be observed. To improve the classification of sediments, the integration of backscatter data and backscatter features, such as ASM (Angular Second Moment), Energy, Contrast, and Correlation, can be employed. Supervised classification models like Dense Neural Network (DNN) can be utilized to accurately determine the types of seafloor sediments. The application of DNN modeling resulted in a training accuracy rate of 88% and a testing accuracy rate of 100%. The accuracy results delineated six distinct sediment types. Notably, sandy silt exhibited the highest distribution, accounting for 49.30%, whereas soft clayey silt registered the lowest distribution at 0.53%, as determined by their respective spatial prevalence.

P-747 Chromosomal mosaic characteristics among women under IVF treatment: multicentric study of 2282 mosaic embryos diagnosed by preimplantation genetic testing with trophectoderm biopsy

Abstract Study question Which chromosomal mosaic features do women under IVF treatment show? Summary answer Single aneuploidies were the most represented among mosaic embryos and their frequency as well as the level of mosaicism increased in older women. What is known already Chromosomal mosaic embryos are characterised by the presence of chromosomally different cell lines within the same embryo. We previously demonstrated that reproductive potential of mosaic embryos is affected by the complexity of and the number of aneuploid cells present in trophectoderm (TE) biopsy. Although with the introduction of next generation sequencing (NGS) chromosomal constitution of human embryos have been elucidated, only limited number of mosaic have been characterised. Therefore, we performed a larger-scale multicenter study on mosaic embryos to examine the patterns and prevalence of chromosome specific mosaicisms in TE samples. Study design, size, duration This is a retrospective cohort study from May 2019 to May 2021 of 20200 embryos obtained from 5770 women under IVF treatment. From this cohort, 2280 mosaic embryos were analysed. All embryos were cultured to blastocyst stage; TE biopsy was performed on Day-5 of development or on Day-6/7 for slow growing embryos. Participants/materials, setting, methods TE biopsies underwent comprehensive chromosome screening (CCS) utilizing validated NGS. TE biopsies were classified as mosaic if they had 20%-80% of abnormal cells. For statistical analysis, embryos were divided in: single whole-chromosome trisomy, double whole-chromosome trisomies, single whole-chromosome monosomy, double whole-chromosome monosomies and complex aneuploidy (more than two different aneuploidies) groups. In addition, the frequency of single, double and complex segmental aneuploidies was evaluated. For each group, the trend related to maternal age was examined. Main results and the role of chance Among 2282 mosaic embryos single (whole-chromosome and segmental) aneuploidies were the most represented(52%) followed by complex(36%) and double ones(14%). When embryos were divided based on different types of aneuploidies, complex aneuploidies were the most frequent(34%) followed by segmental(31%), single monosomies(14%), single trisomy(12%). The more affected chromosomes within trisomies were 16(7%), 19 (7%), 21 and 22(6%). Monosomy involved mainly chromosomes 7(8%), 21 and 22(7%). Chromosomes 1, 5(9%), and 9(8%) were the most targeted by segmental duplication while segmental deletion mostly involved chromosomes 1(11%), 2(13%) and X(8%). The frequency of single aneuploidies as well as the percentage of mosaicism increased in older women. Limitations, reasons for caution This study was retrospective and observational, demonstrating the relative frequency of mosaicisms but not offering any direct insight into the clinical relevance of the findings. More clinical data must be obtained before this approach can be evaluated as an additional tool to choose mosaic embryos for the transfer. Wider implications of the findings This study provides a large dataset of mosaic embryos and offers detailed information on the distribution of different types of mosaicism among a general population of women under IVF treatment. Trial registration number Not applicable

Associations of human papillomavirus genotypes and cervical vascular abnormality in a cohort of women underwent colposcopy, a retrospective study of 6716 patients.

Abnormal vessel patterns are specific signs in patients with early cervical abnormality and cervical cancer(CC) by colposcopy, but the impact of human papillomavirus (HPV) infections on abnormal vessel patterns remains unknown. A total of 6716 female patients with HPV infections or cytological abnormalities who underwent a colposcopy following abnormal CC screening results were included in the study. The final pathological diagnosis was confirmed to be the most severe pathological grade across cervical biopsy, endocervical canal curettage (ECC) and conization. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to investigate the association between HPV infections and abnormal vessel patterns, adjusting for age, gravidity and parity. There were 6124 normal vascular cases by colposcopy and 592 cases with cervical vascular abnormality. The prevalence of HPV infections was 4284 (70%) in normal patients, and the prevalence of HPV infections was 479 (80%) in cervical vascular abnormality patients. HPV high-risk type 16 infection alone increased the risk of cervical heteromorphic blood vessels (aOR=3.66, 95%CI: 2.54~5.27). HPV 16 and 33 alone (other than the commonly recognized subtype of 18) or coinfection of these two genotypes could increase the risk of cervical punctate vascular and cervical vascular mosaic features and abnormal cervical blood vessels. An increased risk of abnormal cervical lesions was observed for HPV 16 and 33 alone or combined in coinfection compared to the negative group. The risk of cervical vascular abnormality was increased 10-fold by coinfection with HPV 16 and 33 (aOR=10.67, 95% CI: 4.54~25.09, P<0.001). HPV 16, 33 alone or combined in coinfection were associated with an increased risk of lesions more advanced than high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL) when compared to the negative group. The risk of lesions more advanced than HSIL was up to 26-fold higher in the coinfection with HPV 16 and 33 group than in the negative group (aOR=26.23, 95%CI: 11.23~61.27, P<0.001). HPV16 and 33 are the most dangerous HPV genotypes correlated with abnormal vascular patterns. Combined HPV16 and HPV33 infection increases the risk of abnormal vascular patterns. Combined HPV16 and HPV33 infection increases the risk of developing HSIL+.

A novel gymnosperm reproductive organ from the Jurassic of China

A feature that distinguishes angiosperms from their gymnosperm peers is that the ovules of angiosperms are enclosed before pollination. Theoretically, the angiosperms were derived from fossil seed plants that have their ovules not enclosed before pollination (gymnosperms). The origin of angiosperms is essentially a process in which the former exposed ovules got enclosed. Although various fossil taxa with different extent of ovule-protection have been documented in the Mesozoic, the morphological gap between angiosperms and gymnosperms is still far from bridged. To narrow down such a gap, here we report a novel fossil gymnosperm, Paradoxa n. gen., demonstrating a mosaic feature comparable to angiosperms in certain aspects from the Jiulongshan Formation (Middle-Late Jurassic) of Inner Mongolia, China: pollen grains trapped inside the female unit imply that Paradoxa is a gymnosperm, while several characters (especially long apical process and partially covered ovule) make it more comparable to angiosperms. It is noteworthy that, different from Caytonia, Umkomasia and Petriellaea (all in the so-called seed ferns), Paradoxa’s Bau-plan is more comparable to that of the basalmost angiosperm Amborella, suggesting a possible provenance of angiosperm carpels.

Foundation and Frontier – Centenary Path of Dental Anthropology in China

Dental anthropology has been developed for 100 years in China. In this paper, the author reviews the articles on dental anthropology related to Chinese materials in the past one hundred years and briefly introduces the issues involved such as human evolution, and the interaction of different populations in historical periods. Results and discussion. The work of foreign scholars has been the foundation of Chinese paleoanthropology and dental anthropology since the discovery of the Hetao human teeth and the Zhoukoudian site. Since then, dental anthropology in China has gone through a phase of material accumulation, a phase of introducing the American ASUDAS in the 1990s, and a phase of prosperity in the last 30 years. The numerous discoveries and the application of new techniques have brought Chinese dental anthropology to an international level. Until now, there are more than 70 human fossil sites in China, over 60 of which contain human dental remains. Less material has been found from the early Pleistocene, and there is some controversy on whether they belong to the genus Homo. While early Middle Pleistocene Homo erectus teeth show primitiveness and some special features, the late Middle Pleistocene human teeth show greater variability, and mosaic features, and there is some controversy on whether some fossils belong to early Homo sapiens or other taxa. The Late Pleistocene human dentition is related to the question of how and when early modern human appeared in China and the evolution of early modern humans. However, due to the incompleteness of the material, the question of human origins is a matter of multidisciplinary and comprehensive interpretation. About 10 sites were studied from Neolithic to modern human dentition using the American ASUDAS. These results show the consistency of non-metric traits in teeth and skulls, display differences between northern and southern Chinese populations, and reveal the exchange between northwestern Chinese and western populations. Some of these results have been confirmed by paleogenomics. Conclusion. Anthropologists began to pay more attention to the morphology of modern human teeth. In the future, the application of new methods and the collection of modern human materials will help us better understand the evolution of ancient humans, population interaction.

THE NATURE OF EMBRYONIC MOSAICISM ACROSS AGE AND CLINICS: AN ANALYSIS OF 21,345 PGT-A CYCLES

Preimplantation genetic testing for aneuploidy (PGT-A) was developed to prevent transferring embryos with chromosomal abnormalities. However, current genetic testing is sensitive enough to detect mosaic abnormalities, or non-uniform chromosomal copy number differences within a subset of trophectoderm cells. An absolute threshold for clinically significant mosaicism remains poorly defined and clinics differ in their management of mosaic embryo results. Here we share our efforts to uncover clinically relevant features of mosaicism via in depth analysis of a multinational database.

Analysis of low-level somatic mosaicism reveals stage and tissue-specific mutational features in human development.

Most somatic mutations that arise during normal development are present at low levels in single or multiple tissues depending on the developmental stage and affected organs. However, the effect of human developmental stages or mutations of different organs on the features of somatic mutations is still unclear. Here, we performed a systemic and comprehensive analysis of low-level somatic mutations using deep whole-exome sequencing (average read depth ~500×) of 498 multiple organ tissues with matched controls from 190 individuals. Our results showed that early clone-forming mutations shared between multiple organs were lower in number but showed higher allele frequencies than late clone-forming mutations [0.54 vs. 5.83 variants per individual; 6.17% vs. 1.5% variant allele frequency (VAF)] along with less nonsynonymous mutations and lower functional impacts. Additionally, early and late clone-forming mutations had unique mutational signatures that were distinct from mutations that originated from tumors. Compared with early clone-forming mutations that showed a clock-like signature across all organs or tissues studied, late clone-forming mutations showed organ, tissue, and cell-type specificity in the mutation counts, VAFs, and mutational signatures. In particular, analysis of brain somatic mutations showed a bimodal occurrence and temporal-lobe-specific signature. These findings provide new insights into the features of somatic mosaicism that are dependent on developmental stage and brain regions.

How Mobility of Resistance Determinants Affects the Dissemination of Antimicrobial Resistance?

Antibiotic resistance is primarily propagated by mobile genetic elements (MGEs) around the world. As a result, antibiotic resistance genes can be found in a wide spectrum of environmental microorganisms. Environmental bacteria are not resistant to all antibiotics now accessible, despite long histories of antibiotic development and exposure. As a result, obtaining a complete resistance arsenal will be challenging. The goal of this study is to look at how the mobility of resistance determinants influences antimicrobial resistance spread. The sources, distribution, and development of resistance mechanisms in various microorganisms and bacterial populations are mosaic features that act as barriers to the spread of bacterial pan-resistance. This is critical information for a better understanding of the genesis of resistance in hazardous bacteria, which could lead to improved antibiotic therapy and the creation of new medications.

A Late Pleistocene human genome from Southwest China

Southern East Asia is the dispersal center regarding the prehistoric settlement and migrations of modern humans in Asia-Pacific regions. However, the settlement pattern and population structure of paleolithic humans in this region remain elusive, and ancient DNA can provide direct information. Here, we sequenced the genome of a Late Pleistocene hominin (MZR), dated ∼14.0 thousand years ago from Red Deer Cave located in Southwest China, which was previously reported possessing mosaic features of modern and archaic hominins. MZR is the first Late Pleistocene genome from southern East Asia. Our results indicate that MZR is a modern human who represents an early diversified lineage in East Asia. The mtDNA of MZR belongs to an extinct basal lineage of the M9 haplogroup, reflecting a rich matrilineal diversity in southern East Asia during the Late Pleistocene. Combined with the published data, we detected clear genetic stratification in ancient southern populations of East/Southeast Asia and some degree of south-versus-north divergency during the Late Pleistocene, and MZR was identified as a southern East Asian who exhibits genetic continuity to present day populations. Markedly, MZR is linked deeply to the East Asian ancestry that contributed to First Americans.

O-278 Prenatal outcomes of mosaic embryo transfer and neonatal assessment

Abstract Ever-improving PGT-A methodologies now make it feasible to routinely detect chromosomal mosaicism. What is the appropriate clinical management of those embryos? What is the impact on pregnancies and births when such embryos are transferred? Mosaicism is the consequence of chromosome-segregation errors at mitosis, resulting in a mix of cells with different chromosomal content. The transfer of embryos with evidence of diploid-aneuploid mosaicism in their PGT-A results has become relatively common practice, and numerous clinics have published their experiences with such transfers. On average, ‘mosaic’ embryos have decreased potential to establish a pregnancy and higher risk for miscarriage compared to ‘euploid’ embryos, but pregnancies reaching term seem to produce apparently healthy babies. These findings favor an expansion of the binary ‘normal vs abnormal’ classification system of PGT-A to include ‘mosaicism’ as a third category. Further data suggest that features of mosaicism detected with PGT-A associate with different clinical outcomes, namely the mosaic level (percent aneuploid cells) and the mosaic type (nature of aneuploidy). ‘Low level’ mosaicism is preferable to ‘high level’ mosaicism, and segmental abnormalities are preferable to aneuploidies affecting whole chromosomes. Therefore, the ‘mosaic’ category can be further refined for optimal ranking purposes in the clinic. While many mosaic embryo transfers have resulted in babies, systematic and detailed follow-up studies on pregnancies from such embryos are urgently needed. The present talk will give an update on the ongoing data collection effort by an international, multicenter consortium containing 1700+ ‘mosaic’ embryo transfers, neonate information from 500+ babies born from those transfers, and 380+ associated prenatal test results. Analysis of the data reveals that late-term pregnancies and babies from ‘mosaic’ and ‘euploid’ embryos have largely equivalent health, with a few notable exceptions.

Research advances in classifications and functions of retinal ganglion cells

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are the most important type of neurons in the visual pathway. RGC axons exit the eye to form the optic nerve, which connects with the brain. The visual signals carried by RGC axons establish the only link between the outside world and our internal perception of sight. Researches on the morphological, physiological, molecular, and mosaic features of RGCs are of great significance. This article reviews the research advances of RGC classifications, definitive types of RGCs, and selective vulnerability of specific RGC types after various injuries.

Somatic mosaicism detected by genome-wide sequencing in 500 parent-child trios with suspected genetic disease: clinical and genetic counseling implications.

Identifying genetic mosaicism is important in establishing a diagnosis, assessing recurrence risk, and providing accurate genetic counseling. Next-generation sequencing has allowed for the identification of mosaicism at levels below those detectable by conventional Sanger sequencing or chromosomal microarray analysis. The CAUSES Clinic was a pediatric translational trio-based genome-wide (exome or genome) sequencing study of 500 families (531 children) with suspected genetic disease at BC Children's and Women's Hospitals. Here we present 12 cases of apparent mosaicism identified in the CAUSES cohort: nine cases of parental mosaicism for a disease-causing variant found in a child and three cases of mosaicism in the proband for a de novo variant. In six of these cases, there was no evidence of mosaicism on Sanger sequencing—the variant was not detected on Sanger sequencing in three cases, and it appeared to be heterozygous in three others. These cases are examples of six clinical manifestations of mosaicism: a proband with classical clinical features of mosaicism (e.g., segmental abnormalities of skin pigmentation or asymmetrical growth of bilateral body parts), a proband with unusually mild manifestations of a disease, a mosaic proband who is clinically indistinguishable from the constitutive phenotype, a mosaic parent with no clinical features of the disease, a mosaic parent with mild manifestations of the disease, and a family in which both parents are unaffected and two siblings have the same disease-causing constitutional mutation. Our data demonstrate the importance of considering the possibility of mosaicism whenever exome or genome sequencing is performed and that its detection via genome-wide sequencing can permit more accurate genetic counseling.

New troodontid theropod specimen from Inner Mongolia, China clarifies phylogenetic relationships of later-diverging small-bodied troodontids and paravian body size evolution.

A new troodontid (LH PV39) recovered from the Upper Cretaceous Wulansuhai Formation, Inner Mongolia, China, is described, highlighting the dorsoventrally compressed sacral centra. The completely fused neurocentral junctions indicate that LH PV39 had reached adulthood at the time of death, but its size is nevertheless 20% smaller than that of the sympatric Philovenator, demonstrating that it is the second small-bodied troodontid recovered from the Wulansuhai Formation. Phylogenetic analyses scoring LH PV39 using different strategies and performed with different algorithms unambiguously recovered it as a troodontid. While the parsimony-based analysis scoring LH PV39 as an independent OTU with all of its available characteristics included recovered it as a basal troodontid, the Bayesian analysis suggests a closer relationship of LH PV39 to Almas and an unnamed troodontid from Ukhaa Tolgod, Mongolia (MPC-D100/1126+D100/3500). Body size analysis confirmed a single trend of gigantism throughout the evolution of troodontids, and suggests that the Late Cretaceous troodontids evolved in two directions: (i) several size-independent characteristics evolved while retaining the small sizes that are typical of the Early Cretaceous relatives, resulting in the Late Cretaceous small-bodied troodontids; and (ii) size-dependent characteristics (e.g., the elongation of the rostrum) evolved accompanying the size increase, resulting in large-bodied derived troodontids. The mosaic features of the Late Cretaceous small-bodied troodontids place them intermediate between their Early Cretaceous basal relatives and the Late Cretaceous large-bodied taxa in a well-resolved phylogeny, which is crucial for understanding the size and morphological evolution of troodontids.

Practical tests of neutron transmission imaging with a superconducting kinetic-inductance sensor

Samples were examined using a superconducting (Nb) neutron imaging system employing a delay-line technique which in previous studies was shown to have high spatial resolution. We found excellent correspondence between neutron transmission and scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of Gd islands with sizes between 15 and 130 μm which were thermally-sprayed onto a Si substrate. Neutron transmission images could be used to identify tiny voids in a thermally-sprayed continuous Gd2O3 film on a Si substrate which could not be seen in SEM images. We also found that neutron transmission images revealed pattern formations, mosaic features and co-existing dendritic phases in Wood’s metal samples with constituent elements Bi, Pb, Sn and Cd. These results demonstrate the merits of the current-biased kinetic inductance detector (CB-KID) system for practical studies in materials science. Moreover, we found that operating the detector at a more optimal temperature (7.9 K) appreciably improved the effective detection efficiency when compared to previous studies conducted at 4 K. This is because the effective size of hot-spots in the superconducting meanderline planes increases with temperature, which makes particle detections more likely.

Mitonuclear Interactions in the Maintenance of Mitochondrial Integrity

In eukaryotic cells, mitochondria originated in an α-proteobacterial endosymbiont. Although these organelles harbor their own genome, the large majority of genes, originally encoded in the endosymbiont, were either lost or transferred to the nucleus. As a consequence, mitochondria have become semi-autonomous and most of their processes require the import of nuclear-encoded components to be functional. Therefore, the mitochondrial-specific translation has evolved to be coordinated by mitonuclear interactions to respond to the energetic demands of the cell, acquiring unique and mosaic features. However, mitochondrial-DNA-encoded genes are essential for the assembly of the respiratory chain complexes. Impaired mitochondrial function due to oxidative damage and mutations has been associated with numerous human pathologies, the aging process, and cancer. In this review, we highlight the unique features of mitochondrial protein synthesis and provide a comprehensive insight into the mitonuclear crosstalk and its co-evolution, as well as the vulnerabilities of the animal mitochondrial genome.

A new genus of sinogaleaspids (Galeaspida, stem-Gnathostomata) from the Silurian Period in Jiangxi, China.

Galeaspids are an endemic clade of jawless stem-gnathostomes known as ostracoderms. Their existence illuminates how specific characteristics developed in jawed vertebrates. Sinogaleaspids are of particular interest among the galeaspids but their monophyly is controversial because little is known about Sinogaleaspis xikengensis. Newly discovered sinogaleaspids from the Lower Silurian of Jiangxi, China provide a wealth of data and diagnostic features used to establish the new genus, Rumporostralis gen. nov., for Sinogaleaspis xikengensis. A morphological study showed that the sensory canal system of sinogaleaspids had mosaic features similar to those of three known galeaspids. There are 3–8 pairs of transverse canals in the Sinogaleaspidae, which suggests that the sensory canal system of galeaspid probably had a grid distribution with transverse canals arranged throughout the cephalic division. Phylogenetic analysis of Galeaspida supports the monophyly of the Sinogaleaspidae, consisting of Sinogaleaspis, Rumporostralis, and Anjiaspis. However, Shuyu and Meishanaspis form another monophyletic group, Shuyuidae fam. nov., which is outside all other eugaleaspidiforms. We propose a cladistically-based classification of Galeaspida based on our analysis.

Clinical and genetic features of somatic mosaicism in facioscapulohumeral dystrophy

PurposeTo analyse the clinical spectrum, genetic features, specific D4Z4 hypomethylation status and genotype–phenotype correlations for somatic mosaicism in facioscapulohumeral dystrophy (FSHD).MethodsThis was a prospective, hospital-based, case–control, observational study of 35...

The dynamic mosaic phenotypes of flowering plants

Ecological interaction and adaptation both depend on phenotypic characteristics. In contrast with the common conception of the 'adult' phenotype, plant bodies develop continuously during their lives. Furthermore, the different units (metamers) that comprise plant bodies are not identical copies, but vary extensively within individuals. These characteristics foster recognition of plant phenotypes as dynamic mosaics. We elaborate this conception based largely on a wide-ranging review of developmental, ecological and evolutionary studies of plant reproduction, and identify its utility in the analysis of plant form, function and diversification. An expanded phenotypic conception is warranted because dynamic mosaic features affect plant performance and evolve. Evidence demonstrates that dynamic mosaic phenotypes enable functional ontogeny, division of labour, resource and mating efficiency. In addition, dynamic mosaic features differ between individuals and experience phenotypic selection. Investigation of the characteristics and roles of dynamic and mosaic features of plant phenotypes benefits from considering within-individual variation as a function-valued trait that can be analysed with functional data methods. Phenotypic dynamics and within-individual variation arise despite an individual's genetic uniformity, and develop largely by heterogeneous gene expression and associated hormonal control. These characteristics can be heritable, so that dynamic mosaic phenotypes can evolve and diversify by natural selection.