Morning Glory Seeds Research Articles

Synergistic decolorization and detoxication of reactive dye Navy Blue 250 (NB250) and dye wastewater by the UV/Chlorine process

The research aims for the simultaneous use of chlorine and UV irradiation (UV/Chlorine) to decolorize and detoxify Navy Blue 250 (NB250) and raw dye wastewater. The UV/Chlorine was the most effective in removing NB250 and color intensity (American Dye Manufacturers Institute, ADMI unit). The UV/Chlorine removed NB250 approximately 1.47–1.50 times faster than chlorination alone. The degradation constants in UV/Chlorine were 0.3317 mM-1min-1 and 0.3384 mM-1min-1 for NB250 and its ADMI color intensity, respectively. The optimum pH for decolorization was between 6 and 7. The UV/Chlorine with a chlorine dose of 1.0–2.0 mM was recommended for decolorization to meet the industrial discharge standard (300 ADMI). Reactive chlorine species (RCS) were more significant oxidants for NB250 removal than HO•. The presence of NB250 inhibited the germination of morning glory (Ipomoea aquatica) seeds, and exposure to raw dye wastewater (color = 6,658 ± 227 ADMI) completely inhibited seed germination. However, the samples treated by the UV/Chlorine were less toxic to seed germination and root growth. Therefore, the UV/Chlorine has a high potential in the decolorization and detoxification of dye wastewater. This is the first study to use the UV/Chlorine to treat industrial dye wastewater.

English

The weed Ipomoea purpurea L. (Convolvulaceae), known generically as morning glory, is an important invasive plant introduced in Brazil, which not only causes significant losses in annual crops, but also makes harvesting difficult and already presents herbicide-tolerant biotypes in the country. In this context, alternative and sustainable ways of managing this plant are sought. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of neem oil on morning glory seeds and seedlings. The experiment was carried out in a completely randomized design, with six treatments composed of different oil dilutions, applied before and after germination, in addition to the control. Based on the experiment, it was observed that neem oil delayed seed germination by up to 1.4 days, although without significance. On the other hand, seedling fresh weight was severely affected by application after sowing, leading to a symptom of leaf blight. Morning glory seedling survival followed the same pattern, where there was a significant reduction by the application of neem oil only after sowing. It was concluded that neem oil has a phytotoxic effect on I. purpurea seedlings, reducing their survival and fresh weight when applied after germination, as well as influencing (delaying) seed emergence when applied to the soil. The study of the effect of lower concentrations, close to economically viable and practiced in the field, should be carried out in the future. © 2022 Friends Science Publishers

GC/MS analysis of morning glory seeds freely in commerce: can they be considered \u201cherbal highs\u201d?

BackgroundThe so-called “herbal highs” are substances derived from natural plants with effects on the central nervous system. Lisergamide, ergine or LSA is the basis of different types of drugs, which are in seeds of Ipomoea violacea, also known as Morning Glory, and other seeds.In our study we analysed the presence of lysergic acid amide (LSA) in seeds of Ipomoea violacea seized by the Italian Police, in others purchased through the Internet, and in other varieties of Ipomoea sold for ornamental purposes, to assess whether the actual consumption of ornamental seeds could contain hallucinogenic doses of LSA.MethodsThe analyses were conducted at the Laboratory of Forensic Toxicology of the Section of Legal Medicine of the University of Perugia, using GC/MSD system. For analysis, 300 mg of seeds (~8 seeds) from each specimen were chosen.ResultsAnalysis revealed that 300 mg of Ipomoea violacea seeds resulting from police seizures, equivalent to approximately 8 seeds, contained a percentage of LSA equal to 0.062%. This finding is in agreement with what was indicated in literature, as the ingestion of 250 seeds would lead to a dose of approximately 6 mg of LSA, capable of provoking hallucinogenic effects.The analysis of 300 mg of Ipomoea Rubrocerulea seeds bought on the commercial marketdetected an average concentration of LSA of 0.011%. The Ipomoea mix contained a concentration of LSA about 10 times lower than that of seized Morning Glory seeds.ConclusionSeeds bought on the commercial market contained doses of LSA capable of provoking hallucinogenic effects. In the absence of data on the toxicity resulting from the ingestion of seeds for ornamental purposes, we believe that further research on the actual safety of ornamental seeds is necessary.

Morning glory seeds are tough enough for an interplanetary trip

Morning glory seeds are tough enough for an interplanetary trip

Survival and DNA Damage in Plant Seeds Exposed for 558 and 682 Days outside the International Space Station.

For life to survive outside the biosphere, it must be protected from UV light and other radiation by exterior shielding or through sufficient inherent resistance to survive without protection. We tested the plausibility of inherent resistance in plant seeds, reporting in a previous paper that Arabidopsis thaliana and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) seeds exposed for 558 days outside the International Space Station (ISS) germinated and developed into fertile plants after return to Earth. We have now measured structural genetic damage in tobacco seeds from this EXPOSE-E experiment by quantitatively amplifying a segment of an antibiotic resistance gene, nptII, inserted into the chloroplast genome. We also assessed the survival of the antibiotic resistance encoded by nptII, using marker rescue in a soil bacterium. Chloroplast DNA damage occurred, but morphological mutants were not detected among the survivors. In a second, longer mission (EXPOSE-R), a nearly lethal exposure was received by Arabidopsis seeds. Comparison between a ground simulation, lacking UV<200nm, and fully exposed seeds in space indicated severe damage from these short wavelengths and again suggested that DNA degradation was not limiting seed survival. To test UV resistance in long-lived, larger seeds, we exposed Arabidopsis, tobacco, and morning glory seeds in the laboratory to doses of UV254nm, ranging as high as 2420 MJ m−2. Morning glory seeds resisted this maximum dose, which killed tobacco and Arabidopsis. We thus confirm that a naked plant seed could survive UV exposures during direct transfer from Mars to Earth and suggest that seeds with a more protective seed coat (e.g., morning glory) should survive much longer space travel. Key Words: UV light—Flavonoids—Sinapate—DNA degradation—Arabidopsis—Tobacco—Seeds—Space—International Space Station—EXPOSE-E—EXPOSE-R. Astrobiology 17, 205–215.

Lignan from the seeds of morning glory induced apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells

Lignan from the seeds of morning glory induced apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells

Identification of antitumor lignans from the seeds of morning glory (Pharbitis nil).

In the search for antitumor compounds from Korean natural resources, activity-guided fractionation and purification processes were used on seeds of morning glory (Pharbitis nil). Air-dried P. nil seeds were extracted with ethanol and separated into n-hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol. Four new lignans, pharbilignans A-D (1-4) were isolated from the most active ethyl acetate fraction of the ethanol extract. Their structures were characterized on the basis of spectroscopic methods, including one- and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques, high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. The cytotoxic activities of the isolates (1-4) were evaluated by determining their inhibitory effects on four human tumor cell lines (A549, SK-OV-3, SK-MEL-2, and HCT15) using a sulforhodamine B (SRB) bioassay. Pharbilignan C (3) showed potent cytotoxicity against A549, SK-OV-3, SK-MEL-2, and HCT-15 cell lines with IC50 values of 1.42, 0.16, 0.20, and 0.14 μM, respectively. On the basis of the expanded understanding that inflammation is a crucial cause in tumor progress, we also evaluated anti-inflammatory activity of the isolates (1-4). Pharbilignan C (3) strongly inhibited nitric oxide (NO) production in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated BV-2 microglia cell line with an IC50 value of 12.8 μM.

Pharbinilic Acid, an Allogibberic Acid from Morning Glory (Pharbitis nil)

Pharbinilic acid (1), the first naturally occurring allogibberic acid, was isolated from ethanol extracts of morning glory (Pharbitis nil) seeds. Its absolute configuration was determined by NOESY NMR and ECD experiments. Compound 1 showed weak cytotoxicity against A549, SK-OV-3, SK-MEL-2, and HCT-15 cells and weakly inhibited nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharide-activated BV-2 microglia cells.

Factors Affecting the Germination of Tall Morningglory (Ipomoea purpurea)

Tall morningglory is an annual broadleaf vine and a problem weed in many annual and perennial crops in several countries including the United States. A better understanding of the germination biology of tall morningglory would facilitate the development of better control strategies for this weed. Experiments were conducted under greenhouse and laboratory conditions to evaluate the effects of various environmental factors, such as temperature, light, planting depth, pH, osmotic and salt stress, and flooding duration, on the germination of tall morningglory. The results suggested that the optimum day/night temperature range for the germination of tall morningglory was 20/12.5 to 35/25 C and maximum germination (89%) was observed at 30/20 C. Temperature higher and lower than the optimum range significantly reduced germination. Alternate light and dark did not have any adverse effect on the germination of tall morningglory seeds. The germination was 10% at an osmotic stress of −0.3 and −0.4 MPa, and above that, no germination was observed. Tall morningglory showed some tolerance to salt stress. The germination was 40% and 12% at salt concentrations of 50 mM and 200 mM, respectively. Germination was affected by pH levels, and maximum germination occurred at pH 6, whereas above or below that level, germination was significantly reduced. Maximum germination of seeds was 83 and 94% when sown at 0 and 2 cm depth in soil, within a week of sowing; however, germination was significantly reduced to 76% when placed at a depth of 4 cm or deeper. Under no flooding treatment, 87% of seed germinated, but flooding delayed and inhibited the germination of tall morningglory seeds. It is concluded that several environmental factors affected the germination of tall morningglory, and this information could help to predict the spread of tall morningglory in new areas such as Florida.

Toxic Plants

More than 60,000 calls are made annually to poison control centers (PCCs) for cases of suspected plant toxicity. Children younger than age 6 years comprise two thirds of cases, due to their natural curiosity and limited judgment. Most of these exposures are benign; fewer than 10% result in treatment by a health professional. The PCC is a valuable source of information to assist in management. Most ingestions of plant material by young children are of small quantity, and symptoms, if present, typically are short-lived and self-limited. Gastrointestinal effects are common and may be a clue to seek other, more subtle signs of poisoning. Plant ingestions in older children and adolescents generally are intentional and of larger quantity, the result of either substance experimentation or attempted self-harm.Autonomic toxidromes can be seen in many plant poisonings. Deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) and Jimson weed (Datura stramonium) produce atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine, all anticholinergic toxins. Victims can present with classic symptoms of flushing, hyperthermia, blurred vision, dry mouth, and hallucinations. Common garden vegetables in the Solanum genus, including tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplants, also can cause anticholinergic symptoms when blossoms or unripe buds are ingested. Physostigmine may be indicated to treat severe or persistent symptoms.A variety of central nervous system (CNS) responses follow plant ingestion. Hallucinations are common with marijuana ingestion by children and with ingestion of nutmeg or morning glory seeds by teenagers. Tobacco plant exposure results in parasympathetic symptoms (miosis, bronchorrhea, gastrointestinal distress) as well as neuromuscular derangement due to unchecked nicotinic receptor response.Cardioactive glycosides are produced by foxglove (Digitalis), but they also are found in lily of the valley (Convallaria) and oleander (Nerium and Thevetia). Symptoms cannot be distinguished from those of digoxin toxicity and include hyperkalemia, CNS depression, and cardiac conduction abnormalities. Treatment with digoxin-specific antibody fragments can be lifesaving.Potentially dangerous toxins can show up in unexpected sources. Berries of the holly and mistletoe plants, common in holiday decorations, carry a risk of significant gastrointestinal distress. Amygdalin, contained in seeds and pits of Prunus species fruits (cherries, apricots, peaches, apples, plums), generates cyanide when metabolized. The resulting inhibition of cellular respiration can be lethal.Ingestion of mushrooms also may have fatal consequences. Species that harbor amatoxins (Amanita) and related compounds typically cause delayed onset (6 hours) of nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. A second latent period is followed by acute and possibly fulminant hepatitis beginning 48 to 72 hours after ingestion. Effective decontamination and therapies directed at the toxins generally are ineffective, and supportive care, including liver transplant if necessary, is the mainstay of therapy. Other species of mushrooms can cause hallucinations, muscarinic toxicity, or general gastrointestinal irritation. Although most mushroom species are nontoxic, caretakers of a child who has eaten or who is suspected of eating any wild mushroom should call the PCC for guidance.The PCC can be an important aid in medical decision making, particularly with symptomatic patients for whom the identity of the plant is unknown. Electronic transmission of digital images may allow the PCC and expert botanists to identify the offending plant quickly and confidently and provide data on managing the exposure.Management of a potentially lethal exposure always should include communication with a toxicologist. In these situations, establishing control of airway, breathing, and circulation should be priorities. Aggressive decontamination, with gastric emptying, activated charcoal, and possibly whole bowel irrigation, may be warranted.Parents should be aware of the types of plants kept inside the home as well as in any landscaping in the yard or neighborhood. Unknown plants or shrubs, especially those that have bright colors or other features that might seem inviting to the curious child, can be identified with the help of a local nursery.Comment: Although pediatricians may consider drug ingestion readily in the differential diagnosis for certain signs and symptoms, I dare say we do not consider toxic plant exposures as often as we should, especially in younger children. Plant exposures in children 6 years of age and younger accounted for 4.6% of calls to PCCs, and this figure only represents instances when exposure was considered. The prevalence, therefore, is probably underestimated. Another important aspect to consider is the overlap of presentations between herbal remedies and plant exposures, another area where we need to expand our questioning. Consideration of toxic plant exposures in our patients reinforces the importance and value to parents and pediatricians of PCCs and the vast knowledge of diagnosis and treatment their staff impart. The website http://www.aapcc.org contains useful information about poison centers.Janet R. Serwint, MDConsulting Editor, In Brief

Temperatura cardeal e potencial hídrico na germinação de sementes de corda-de-viola (Ipomoea triloba)

O presente trabalho teve como objetivos avaliar o efeito da temperatura e da umidade na germinação e na emergência de corda-de-viola (Ipomoea triloba) e determinar o efeito de potenciais hídricos e de temperaturas na germinação de sementes e na elongação do hipocótilo e da radícula dessa espécie. Avaliaram-se os termoperíodos de 9,3 e 5 (7,5); 14,3 e 10 (12,5); 19,3 e 15 (17,5); 24,3 e 20 (22,5); 29,3 e 25 (27,5); 34,3 e 30 (32,5); 39,2 e 35 (37,5) e 44,2; 40 (42,5); e 49,2 e 45 (47,5) ºC, alternando-se durante 14 e 10 horas, e os potenciais hídricos de 0, -0,03, -0,06, -0,1, -0,2, -0,4, -0,6 e -0,9 MPa. A germinação de corda-de-viola foi descrita pela interação da temperatura e do potencial hídrico, e a taxa de elongação da radícula e do hipocótilo, em função da temperatura. Os parâmetros do modelo usado para estimar as temperaturas cardeais e o potencial hídrico base foram determinados por "probit" análise, para a germinação. Em se tratando dos processos de elongação, as temperaturas cardeais foram determinadas por regressão linear, e suas respostas à temperatura, descritas por equação de regressão de segunda ordem. Os modelos matemáticos usados descreveram os processos de germinação e elongação do hipocótilo e da radícula dessa espécie em termos de tempo hidrotérmico e temperatura, respectivamente.

Identification and characterization of an Ipomoea nil glucosyltransferase which metabolizes some phytohormones

A glucosyltransferase gene InGTase1 was identified from the immature seeds of morning glory ( Ipomoea nil), whose product shows a broad substrate-preference, including that of some phytohormones. When 2- trans-abscisic acid, indole-3-acetic acid, salicylic acid (SA) or (±)-jasmonic acid was reacted with InGTase1 and UDP-[ 14C]-glucose, each 14C-labeled compound with high polarity was detected after thin layer chromatography. SA metabolites were identified as SA glucosyl ester by using 1H NMR and GC/MS. Detailed substrate-preferences of InGTase1 were examined with some analogous compounds, which elucidated that the arm length and/or orientation of a carboxyl group of the compounds or its surrounding electron density severely affected the enzymatic activity. The broad substrate-preference will greatly contribute to the synthesis of various glucoconjugates.

Intrapilosins I−VII, Pentasaccharides from the Seeds of Ipomoea intrapilosa

Purification of a CHCl3-soluble extract from seeds of the Mexican medicinal arborescent morning glory, Ipomoea intrapilosa, by means of preparative-scale recycling HPLC, yielded seven new resin glycosides, intrapilosins I-VII (1-7). Their structures were established through the interpretation of their NMR spectroscopic and FABMS data. All pentasaccharides were found to be macrolactones of the known operculinic acid A with different fatty acids esterifying the same positions: C-2 on the second rhamnose unit and C-3 and C-4 on the third rhamnose moiety. The lactonization site of the aglycon could be placed at C-2 of the second saccharide. The fatty acid components of 1-7 were identified as (+)-(2S)-methylbutanoic, octanoic (caprylic), dodecanoic (lauric), and trans-cinnamic. The less common (-)-(2R)-methylbutanoic acid was also isolated as one of the saponification-liberated residues from intrapilosin IV (4). The presence of the (2R)- and (2S)-methylbutanoyl enantiomers bonded to the same oligosaccharide core in intrapilosins IV (4) and V (5) represents an example of diastereoisomerism due to a chiral esterifying moiety in the resin glycoside mixtures of a morning glory species.

アサガオ種子気管支異物の1例

We reported on a rare case of morning glory seeds as bronchial foreign bodies. The patient was a five-month-old male infant. He accidentally inhaled morning glory seeds after placing them in his mouth and coughing. The consulting doctor diagnosed that he had caught a cold after examining a chest x-ray image and observing normal sounding respiration. Three days later, his body temperature was 40 degrees and his cough was persisting. Medical consultation was sought again. His chest x-ray revealed that the mediastinum had moved to the right side and the left pulmonary field had inflated abnormally. CT imaging clearly indicated foreign bodies in the left bronchus. We performed a ventilation bronchoscopy. His left bronchus was obstructed by morning glory sprouts. After we removed the sprouts, the child's respiratory sound and chest x-ray results improved. We determined that the morning glory seeds had germinated in the warm and wet bronchus and the enlarged seeds had obstructed his left bronchus.

Distribution of Gibberellins and Expressional Analysis of GA 20-oxidase Genes of Morning Glory during Fruit Maturation

Gibberellins A1/3 (GA1/3) and GA20 appeared earlier in surrounding tissues (pericarps/carpel/placenta) than in developing seeds of morning glory. The content of GA1/3 became higher in seeds than in the surrounding tissues at 9 days after anthesis (DAA), while that of GA20 stayed lower in seeds even at 12 DAA, suggesting the possibility that GA20 was translocated into seeds from the surrounding tissues and converted to GA1/3. The site of biosynthesis of GA20 in the fruits was determined by RNA-blotting and in situ hybridization of GA 20-oxidase genes (InGA20ox1, InGA20ox2). InGA20ox1 was not expressed in the surrounding tissues but in seeds, while no signal due to InGA20ox2 was detected in neither tissue. The expression of InGA20ox1 started in the seed coat near the hilum and spread in the seed coat like those of GA 3-oxidase and GA-inducible alpha-amylase genes. These observations suggest that GA biosynthesis is tissue-specifically and time-dependently regulated in the fruit of morning glory.

Gibberellin induces alpha-amylase gene in seed coat of Ipomoea nil immature seeds.

Two full-length cDNAs encoding gibberellin 3-oxidases, InGA3ox1 and InGA3ox2, were cloned from developing seeds of morning glory (Ipomoea nil (Pharbitis nil) Choisy cv. Violet) with degenerate-PCR and RACEs. The RNA-blot analysis for these clones revealed that the InGA3ox2 gene was organ-specifically expressed in the developing seeds at 6-18 days after anthesis. In situ hybridization showed the signals of InGA3ox2 mRNA in the seed coat, suggesting that active gibberellins (GAs) were synthesized in the tissue, although no active GA was detected there by immunohistochemistry. In situ hybridization analysis for InAmy1 (former PnAmy1) mRNA showed that InAmy1 was also synthesized in the seed coat. Both InGA3ox2 and InAmy1 genes were expressed spatially overlapped without a clear time lag, suggesting that both active GAs and InAmy1 were synthesized almost simultaneously in seed coat and secreted to the integument. These observations support the idea that GAs play an important role in seed development by inducing alpha-amylase.

Immunohistochemistry of active gibberellins and gibberellin-inducible alpha-amylase in developing seeds of morning glory.

Gibberellins (GAs) in developing seeds of morning glory (Pharbitis nil) were quantified and localized by immunostaining. The starch grains began to be digested after the GA contents had increased and reached a plateau. Immunohistochemical staining with the antigibberellin A(1)-methyl ester-antiserum, which has high affinity to biologically active GAs, showed that GA(1) and/or GA(3) were localized around starch grains in the integument of developing young seeds, suggesting the participation of GA-inducible alpha-amylase in this digestion. We isolated an alpha-amylase cDNA (PnAmy1) that was expressed in the immature seeds, and using an antibody raised against recombinant protein, it was shown that PnAmy1 was expressed in the immature seeds. GA responsiveness of PnAmy1 was shown by treating the young fruits 9 d after anthesis with GA(3). RNA-blot and immunoblot analyses showed that PnAmy1 emerged soon after the rapid increase of GA(1/3). An immunohistochemical analysis of PnAmy1 showed that it, like the seed GA(1/3), was also localized around starch grains in the integument of developing young seeds. The localization of GA(1/3) in the integument coincident with the expression of PnAmy1 suggests that both function as part of a process to release sugars for translocation or for the further development of the seeds.

Immature Compost Suppresses Weed Growth Under Greenhouse Conditions

The influence of immature municipal solid waste-biosolids composts on emergence and mean days to emergence (MDE) of several weed species was evaluated in a pot trial under greenhouse conditions. The experiment consisted of placing a 7.5 cm deep layer of three-day-old immature compost, a mature and stable compost, an artificial medium or control sand as a mulch on ivyleaf morning glory seeds. Immature three-day-old compost decreased percentage emergence, shoot and root dry weight, and increased MDE of ivyleaf morning glory. In an experiment with eight-week-old immature compost utilizing mulching depths of 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 cm and the untreated control on seeds of three weed species, common purslane did not emerge under any of the immature compost treatments. The MDE of ivyleaf morning glory and barnyard grass increased linearly as immature compost depths increased. Next, eight economically important weed species were sown in pots with either mature or immature (eight-week-old) compost utilizing mulching depths of 2.5 and 10 cm, in addition to an untreated control. Control pots yielded higher percentages of emergence than compost treatments for all species evaluated. Common purslane, large crabgrass, pig-weed, Florida beggarweed, and dichondra did not emerge through a 10-cm deep layer of mature compost mulch, or 2.5 or 10 cm deep layer of immature mulch. Significant compost maturity/depth interactions were observed for percent emergence on common purslane, ground cherry, large crabgrass, Florida beggarweed, and ivyleaf morning glory. A thinner layer was required to suppress germination using immature eight-week-old compost as compared to mature and stable compost. Immature (three-day or eight-week-old) compost containing acetic acid concentrations of 2474 and 1776 mg.kg−1 respectively reduced percentage emergence of several economically important weed species. These studies suggest that immature composts can be used to control weeds under conditions where spatial separation is maintained between the crop and the compost and phytotoxic fermentation products do not affect the health of the mulched plants and where odors associated with such partially stabilized products do not pose problems.

Effect of electric field on physical states of cell-associated water in germinating morning glory seeds observed by 1H-NMR

Morning glory seeds in dry conditions (0.099 g H 2O/dry wt.) were exposed to electric fields and germinated. The physical state of water in the germinating seeds of both control and exposed groups were examined using 1H-NMR spectroscopy and NMR microscopy. Three water fractions were observed which were characterized by different relaxation times ( T 1) and chemical shifts. The average region containing long T 1 fractions was approximately 50 μm in diameter and consisted of half-permeable barriers. The maximum intracellular water transport rate was 2.3×10 −5 cm 2/s. The treatment with electric field (500 kV/m for 60 min) increased the fraction with the shortest T 1 and decreased that with the longest T 1. Because the total water content in the treated seeds (3.4 g H 2O/dry wt.) was similar to that in the untreated seeds (3.9 g H 2O/dry wt.), the treated seeds held more water in a condition in restricted motion than the untreated seeds. It is thought that the membrane systems were affected by the electric polarization which led to an unusual accumulation of water and the hydration of stored macromolecules during the imbibition process. This set of events led to excessive swelling of stored macromolecules, resulting in the disruption of membrane systems and irregular organization of tissue structures.

Poisonous Plants: When They Are a Threat to Children

Poisonous Plants: When They Are a Threat to Children