Monuments Of India Research Articles

Rethinking monuments as cultural commons: exploring alternatives to the existing legal and policy framework for conservation of ancient monuments in India

ABSTRACT The history of organized monument conservation in India dates back to the colonial rule. The colonial conservation programme sought to exclude local communities from conservation. Monument conservation became a centralized and technocratic enterprise. Post-independence, the trend of exclusion of local communities continued, deeply reflected in the laws governing ancient monuments. This has, on the one hand, contributed to the weakening of cultural ties between the communities and the monuments. On the other hand, issues such as staff shortage and inadequate monitoring by government agencies have plagued the physical governance of monuments. Globally though, there has been a substantial rethinking around the “value” of cultural heritage and the role that local communities may play both in the enhancement of their value and in their conservation. In light of the aforesaid, the authors in this article have argued for the need to rethink the ancient monuments of India as cultural commons.

Stabilizing History through Statues, Monuments, and Memorials in Curzon's India

AbstractThis article argues that projects to make Britain's imperial history visible to the public through the display of statues, the establishment of a history museum, and the renovation of historical markers solidified a colonial narrative about the British empire's permanence in India during the first two decades of the twentieth century, decades in which anticolonial unrest threatened the British occupation of the subcontinent. The monumental scale expressed permanence. An imperial aesthetic linked the cities important to showcasing the empire in Calcutta, New Delhi, and London. Contrary to mainstream assumptions that commemorations should be preserved for the sake of documenting history, these markers enacted a British story of triumph at a moment when mass campaigns against British rule were occurring. Coming at the end of a long nineteenth century of statue mania, when many European nations installed memorials to national heroes, the installation of monuments in India presented a colonialist public history of events such as the Black Hole incident of 1757 or the rebellions of 1857. Drawing from Viceroy George Curzon's ambitions in historical preservation and monumentalizing, the article shows how he stabilized a British narrative of India amid anticolonial campaigns of protest.

Legal Regime for the Protection of Heritage Stone Monuments in India: a Study with Special Reference to Taj Mahal and Lotus Temple

Legal Regime for the Protection of Heritage Stone Monuments in India: a Study with Special Reference to Taj Mahal and Lotus Temple

Effects of air pollution on monumental buildings in India: An overview.

Recent advancements in environmental monitoring and analysis have created public and institutional awareness on the social and health impacts of air pollution at public places of tourists' attraction. Monuments stand as the celebrated remnants of bygone representations in the social and cultural tradition of any civilised state. India, being one of the oldest and live civilisations, owns numerous places of historical evidences in the form of both constructed museums and living monuments such as temples and palaces. Continuous exposure to the emission of gaseous and particulate pollutants has made remarkable evidences of damage to the artefacts and monumental structures located in major cities of the world. The aim of this study is to present an overview of the scientific attempts pertaining to the evaluation of impacts of air pollution and other meteorological changes on the historical monuments in India in the context of the global scenario. It is observed that seasonal fluctuations in the outdoor climate and increased human activities in the vicinity of the museums have plausible impacts on the immediate changes in the indoor air quality. The variations in the outdoor air quality are greatly affected by the traffic emissions and industrial emissions, while the indoor air quality is mostly affected by the improper ventilation and lack of proper control measures. The study provides strategies for developing air quality standards for museum environment and proposes a few technical and administrative solutions to improve the air quality for indoor museums as well as outdoor monuments.

Weathering of stone monuments: Damage assessment of basalt and laterite

Most heritage monuments in India are made of stones, representing the rich cultural traditions of the region. Due to human interventions and natural causes these monuments are undergoing deterioration and need effective intervention. The weathering of stone monuments can be attributed to stone characteristics and also to the environment. This study attempts to investigate and assess extent of deterioration in two monuments, Khidrapur temple and Panhala Fort. Engineering properties and chemical composition of stones were determined. XRD analysis revealed the presence of minerals, pyroxene and olivine. SEM images show the formation of detritus minerals indicating the intrinsic weathering of rock. These studies reveal that agents of weathering have deteriorated the building stones from outside and inside also. Micro structural analysis also helped to identify the intrinsic characteristics of stone, which will aid in formulating preservative treatments and procedures. This study forms a base for sustainable conservation of these heritage monuments. The outcome of the study will be applicable for determining conservation strategies for the monuments built in basalt and laterite.

Jaisalmer Golden Limestone: A Heritage Stone Resource from the Desert of Western India

The yellow-colored limestone of Jaisalmer, famous as golden stone, has been extensively used in the architectonic heritage of western India. The architectural heritage, built of this limestone, imparts an exquisite character to Jaisalmer city, which is popularly known as “The Golden City.” The Jaisalmer Fort built using Jaisalmer Limestone, locally referred to as “Sonar Qila” meaning “Golden Fort,” has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Jaisalmer is renowned for architecturally distinctive Jaisalmer Fort, Palace of Maharawal (now Fort Palace Museum), Jain and Lodurva temples, Nathmalji-ki-Haveli, Patwon ki Haveli, Salim Singh ki Haveli, and Bada Bag cenotaphs (burial monuments, locally known as chhatris) constructed using the yellow Jaisalmer Limestone. Besides being used as a major building material, it has found profound usage in inlay work done in many religious places, forts, palaces, and mausoleums built during the reign of Mughals in India from sixteenth century onwards. The Jaisalmer Limestone, also known as yellow limestone, is well exposed around Jaisalmer city. It belongs to the Jaisalmer Formation of the Jurassic age. The Jaisalmer Limestone is hard and compact with low porosity, which has been classified as oolitic to bioclastic grainstone, packstone to wackestone. The yellow limestone, which is the most sought-after variety due to its pleasing color, texture, and aesthetics, is being quarried around the city of Jaisalmer for decades. The yellow limestone is commonly traded as “Yellow Marble.” The common use of the Jaisalmer Limestone includes floor tiles, wall claddings, counter tops, and most importantly as an ornamental stone. The Jaisalmer Limestone is exported to various countries across the Middle East and Europe in the form of slabs, tiles, and handicrafts. The Golden Jaisalmer Limestone’s wide usage in the heritage monuments in India deserves to be promoted on a global scenario. Thus, we propose it to be designated as the “Global Heritage Stone Resource” from India.

Modeling and Assessment of Lightning Hazards to Humans in Heritage Monuments in India and Sri Lanka

Lightning is one of the inevitable disastrous phenomena which in addition to damaging tall edifices, might also consequently endanger humans due to lightning-human interactions. This research focuses on analyzing lightning hazards to humans in the vicinity of heritage monuments in India and Sri Lanka. Five monuments which include three giant stupas namely Ruwanweliseya, Jethawanaramaya and Abayagiriya from Sri Lanka and two large temples namely Brihadishvara Temple and Gangaikonda Cholapuram from India have been chosen for investigation. Lightning-human interaction mechanisms namely direct strike, side flash, aborted upward leader, step and touch voltages have been investigated for the most onerous scenario on humans in the vicinity of the monuments. Firstly, the electro-geometric model as stipulated in standards has been implemented to ascertain the effectiveness of lightning protection to the structures. Subsequently, the study has been extended to the computation of step and touch voltages utilizing lightning current and electrostatic models based on Finite Element Method (FEM) using COMSOL Multi-physics®. Detailed plots of electric field and voltage distribution of lightning on humans due to a typical lightning current of 30 kA have been obtained. The final study involves assessment of current through humans which is estimated based on lumped R-C human model representation using OrCAD Cadence®. The analyses reveal that humans are invariably shielded against direct strikes whereas effects due to side flashes are minimal. During strikes to the monuments, high voltage may appear due to step and touch potential under dry conditions, though such effects could be mitigated by appropriate earthing system.

Древнеиндийские пещерные храмовые памятники как объекты уникальных средовых комплексов

The article outlines the features of creating cave temple monuments in India. A comparative analysis of some aspects in the architectural traditions and building technologies of the temple architecture of Europe and India is given. The impact of construction technologies on the interior spaces, the interiors of temple complexes cut in rocks and integrated into integral systems of environmental complexes is affected.

Studying the acoustic emission response of an Indian monumental sandstone under varying temperatures and strains

Study of rocks under high temperature and strain-rate condition can serve as vital information in the restoration process of fire damaged buildings. In this study, the mechanical response of thermally treated fine-grained Dholpur sandstone was observed under increasing strain rates. Dholpur sandstone, a popular construction material, has been used to build some of the iconic monuments in India, a list which includes the Parliament, House of Indian President and the Buddhist Stupas of Sanchi. Thermal treatment spanned across ten days which included heating of the samples (200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 °C) for five days followed by cooling, in room condition, for the exact same duration. The samples were then tested to failure at three different strain rates (2 × 10−5, 1 × 10−4 and 2 × 10−4 S−1). The elastic modulus was measured using non-contact laser extensometer. Acoustic emission (AE) technique was used to observe the microcrack development under compressive loading. The results from AE were used to demarcate the various stress thresholds and the stress regimes. The result of the experimental analysis suggests that the strength and elastic properties of rocks tend to increase till 400–600 °C followed by a fall in the mechanical characteristics. Onset of plasticity can be observed at high temperature. Strength of the rocks decrease at high strain rates due to the influence of strain rate dependency. The threshold values follow the behaviour of the mechanical properties under the influence of temperature and strain rate.

Draft Genome Sequence of Cyanobacterium Hassallia byssoidea Strain VB512170, Isolated from Monuments in India.

The draft genome assembly of Hassallia byssoidea strain VB512170 with a genome size of ~13 Mb and 10,183 protein-coding genes in 62 scaffolds is reported here for the first time. This is a terrestrial hydrophobic cyanobacterium isolated from monuments in India. We report several copies of luciferase and antibiotic genes in this organism.

The Many Lives of Nuclear Monuments in India

In this article, I consider to what extent, and in which senses, nuclear constructions assume the role of a monument, whether in terms of relatively concrete structures or as ephemeral reproductions in public culture. The overbearing notion of the monument applies to edifices that have lost their functionality, as with ancient monuments, or serve as mnemonics to notable person(s), event(s), or occasion(s), as with war memorials. They then become pointers to a cascade of meanings displaced through time and/or space. Whilst they are monuments in and of themselves – as conjured up by the notion of the monumental, a phenomenal sight to behold, as part of the picturesque aesthetic – they are also monuments to something, transferences that are not necessarily conveyed through visual perceptions but also historical, social, and political accretions that impinge on the experience of encountering and interpreting them. The theme addressed here is how structures that are overdetermined by their functional contemporaneity such as dams, nuclear reactors, and other industrial structures can be also seen as monuments in this dual sense. The argument recalls early twentieth-century discourses associated with artistic constructions applied to industry, as with the works of Russian artists such as Aleksandr Rodchenko and Varvara Stepanova, where the function of art took precedence over the aesthetic aspects of objects, the latter castigated as a bourgeois ideology, rarefied and removed from the circuits of utility as if they were sacred objects. Here, I attempt to traverse shifting territories: one territory that tries to move away from the aestheticised and historicised realms of monumentality that developed in South Asia under the influence of colonial epistemologies; another that tries to unpack the functional overdetemination of modernist monuments, greatly influenced by modernist aesthetics that developed in the post-independence period as a new nation strived to throw off the carcass of colonial historicisation. In so doing, I outline three main registers of nuclear monuments that have developed in postcolonial India: ‘nuclear realist’, ‘anti-realist’, and ‘post-liberal kitsch’.

Study on the performance enhancement of lime mortar used in ancient temples and monuments in India

Study on the performance enhancement of lime mortar used in ancient temples and monuments in India

Study on the performance enhancement of lime mortar used in ancient temples and monuments in India

Lime is arguably the world first true green and versatile building material. The traditional lime binder offers greater durability but less strong compared to cement. The objective of the study is to improve the strength parameters of lime using traditional herbs. Lime mortar prisms (mix proportion: 1:2 i.e., one part of lime to 2 parts of sand) were cast after 15 days of fermentation with traditional herbal extract [aqueous extract of oonjalvalli ( Cissus glauca Roxb.), pananchikaai ( Cochlospermum religiosum ), kulamavu ( Persea macrantha ), gallnut ( Terminalia chebula ) and palm jaggery (from Borassus flabellifer )] and tested for its Flexure, Tension and Compressive strengths. The lime mortar prism fermented with plain water was used as control. The transverse strength of herbal lime mortar (5% herbs) is 1.6 times greater than lime mortar fermented with plain water. Besides, there was an increase in the tensile strength by three folds, due to elastic nature of herbal lime mortar. The compressive strength is greatly enhanced up to 2.5 times on the addition of 5% herbs. This may be due to the fact that herbal extract enhanced the density of lime mortar by bringing the particles of lime mortar closer to each other, thereby producing a more compact mass. Traditional structures built with lime mortar, which are more than 4,000 years old like Mohanjo-Daro is still a heritage monument of Indian civilization. It is more appropriate to blend the traditional concept with modern structures. The present work may also help in reviving ancient monuments.

Diversity of Micro-algae and Cyanobacteria on Building Facades and Monuments in India

Fifty seven taxa of Cyanobacteria and 15 taxa of Chlorophyta were recorded from the exterior of buildings and rock surfaces of monuments in different regions in India. Four cyanobacteria, e.g. Chroococcidiopsis kashayi, Pseudophormidium indicum, Plectonema puteale and Scytonema geitleri, and the green alga Trentepholia abietina var. tenue occur on the sub-aerial habitats throughout the year. In addition, five other green algae: Chlorococcum infusionum, Scenedesmus arcuatus, Trentepholia aurea, Gloeocystis polydermatica and Printzina effusa, and 18 other cyanobacteria taxa of the genera Chroococcus (5), Asterocapsa (1), Cyanosarcina (2), Gloeocapsa (7), Gloeothece (2) and Scytonema (1) occur on the sub-aerial surfaces enduring extreme temperature and desiccation during summer months of the tropics. During the rainy season, the warm and humid climatic regime coupled with availability of moisture supported an additional ten green algae and 29 cyanobacteria in eight and 17 genera, respectively. The green algal genera Klebsormidium, Stichococcus and Trebouxia, which are dominant in temperate regions, did not occur on the sub-aerial habitats in India, however, species of Gloeocapsa, Chroococcus, Chroococcidiopsis, Phormidium, Leptolyngbya, Nostoc, Scytonema, Chlorella and Trentepholia showed global occurrence in similar habitats.

Blue-green algal flora at some archaeological sites and monuments of India

The blackish brown crusts occurring on the exposed surface of several monuments of archaeological importance in India were studied. Study sites with different substrata and at different locations were investigated, e.g. the fresco-paintings at Ajanta caves, exposed rock surfaces in and outside the caves of Elephanta, Lonavala and Ajanta, terracotta structures of the temples of Bishnupur and excavated sites of Saronath, Lalitgiri and Udaigiri. In total sixteen different blue-green algal species belonging to eight genera, i.e. Gloeothece, Myxosarcina, Nostoc, Calothrix,Tolypothrix, Fischerella, Westiellopsis and Stigonema were recorded as the main component of the crusts at these sites. Morphological as well as physiological attributes of these organisms were studied. Each species is described and illustrated. Die schwarzbraunen Krusten auf exponierten Oberflachen verschiedener Monumente mit archaologischer Bedeutung in Indien wurden untersucht. Fundpunkte an mehreren Lokalitaten mit unterschiedlichen Substraten wurden berucksichtigt, z. B. die Fresko-Malereien der Ajanta-Hohlen, exponierte Felsoberflachen innerhalb und auserhalb der Hohlen von Elephanta, Lonavala und Ajanta, Terracotta-Strukturen der Tempel von Bishnupur und Ausgrabungsstellen bei Saronath, Lalitgiri und Udaigiri. Insgesamt 16 Arten Blaugruner Algen aus acht Gattungen (Gloeothece, Myxosarcina, Nostoc,Calothrix, Tolypothrix, Fischerella, Westiellopsis und Stigonema) konnen als Hauptbestandteile der Krusten beschrieben werden. Morphologische wie physiologische Merkmale dieser Organismen wurden untersucht. Alle 16 Arten werden beschrieben und abgebildet.

Control of epilithic cyanobacterial mats of the temples of India using algicides

Control of cyanobacterial mats from the rock surfaces of the temples and monuments of India by using algicidal chemicals, viz. CuSO 4 , ZnSiF 6 , Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 and ammonia was studied in laboratory culture. On treatment of the mats with ammonia or Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 for 3 or 7 days, their chlorophyll a pigment content decreased, photosynthesis was ceased and the organisms there-in did not revive even after removal of these chemicals from the cultures. Aqueous ammonia and/or Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 can be employed for clearing the epilithic mats from the temples and monuments.

Survival in darkness and heterotrophic growth of epilithic cyanobacteria from temples of India

Many of the epilithic cyanobacteria which colonize the temples and monuments of India survived in the inorganic mineral medium in darkness up to 2 months and showed chemoheterotrophic growth capability in the exogenous sugar supplemented media. Of the various sugars, sucrose or glucose supported mixotrophic and chemoheterotrophic growth of most of the epilithic species. Heterotrophic growth of Tolypothrix byssoidea and T. scytonemoides which were the major components of crusts on the temple walls were almost comparable to their respective autotrophic growth rate. T. byssoidea survived in the dark in the inorganic medium showing half vacuolated cells. Dark grown cultures of Tolypothrix byssoidea lost its capacity to absorb in the UV-B region due to mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) which could be reinduced after exposure to light for prolonged periods. Absorption in the UV-A region due to scytonemin was retained even when the cyanobacterium was cultivated in darkness suggesting that MAAs but not scytonemin is the major sunscreen pigment at least in this epilithic cyanobacterium.

Blue-green algal flora on the rock surface of temples and monuments of India

Blue-green algal flora on the rock surface of temples and monuments of India

Blue‐green algal flora on the rock surface of temples and monuments of India

AbstractBlue‐green algae occcurring as blackish brown crust/tuft on the exposed rock surface of 30 different temples and monuments of different regions of India were studied. A total number of 30 species attributed to 13 different genera were encountered. Seven species of Tolypothrix, and one each of Gloeocapsopsis, Lyngbya, Phormidium and Plectonema are the major componentes of the crusts/tufts. There were also species belonging to Gloeothece, Myxosarcina, Chroococcidiopsis, Plectonema, Nostoc, Calothrix, Chlorogloeopsis, Fischerella and Hapalosiphon which appeared in the enrichment culture as minor component along with the dominant species. All the species are described with illustrations.

Review: Bhadresvar: The Oldest Islamic Monuments in India by Mehrdad Shokoohy, Manijeh Bayani-Wolpert, Natalie H. Shokoohy; Hisar-i Furuza: Sultanate and Early Mughal Architecture in the District of Hisar, India by Mehrdad Shokoohy, Natalie H. Shokoohy

Review: Bhadresvar: The Oldest Islamic Monuments in India by Mehrdad Shokoohy, Manijeh Bayani-Wolpert, Natalie H. Shokoohy; Hisar-i Furuza: Sultanate and Early Mughal Architecture in the District of Hisar, India by Mehrdad Shokoohy, Natalie H. Shokoohy