Monte Perdido Research Articles

Numerical simulations of recent and future evolution of Monte Perdido glacier

Glaciers are globally retreating due to climate change, and the Pyrenees Mountain range is no exception. This study uses the Open Global Glacier Model (OGGM) to explore the dynamics of the Monte Perdido glacier, one of the largest remaining glaciers in the Pyrenees. We explored three calibration approaches to assess their performances when reproducing observed volume decreases. The first approach involved mass balance calibration using terrestrial laser scanning data from 2011 to 2022 and climate data from a nearby weather station. The second approach used terrestrial laser scanning calibration with default climate data provided by OGGM (GSWP3-W5E5). The third approach used default geodetic mass balance calibration and default climate data. By comparing these calibration strategies and analysing historical data (terrestrial laser scanning and ground penetrating radar), we obtain insights of the applicability of OGGM to this small, mild conditions, Pyrenean glacier. The first calibration approach is identified as the most effective, emphasising the importance of selecting appropriate climate data and calibration methods. Additionally, we conducted future volume projections using an ensemble of General Circulation Models (GCMs) under the RCP2.6 and RCP8.5 scenarios. The results indicate a potential decrease in total ice volume ranging from 91.60% to 95.16% by 2100, depending on the scenario. Overall, this study contributes to the understanding of the Monte Perdido glacier’s behaviour and its response to climate change through the calibration of the OGGM, while also providing the first estimate of its future melting under different emission scenarios.

Does Sorex alpinus still live in the Pyrenees? (Eulipotyphla: Soricidae)

The Alpine shrew (Sorex alpinus) is considered probably extinct in the Pyrenees. However, newly published photographs of an ‘unknown shrew’ from the Ordesa y Monte Perdido National Park in the Spanish part of the range indicate its recent occurrence in the mountains.

Effects of impurities on the ice microstructure of Monte Perdido Glacier, Central Pyrenees, NE Spain

Abstract Monte Perdido Glacier, located in the central Pyrenees, is one of the southernmost glaciers in Europe. Due to climate change, this glacier is suffering an accelerated mass loss, especially in the last decades. If the current trends persist, this glacier is expected to disappear in the next 50 years. As part of the efforts of the scientific community to increase the knowledge about this glacier, this research presents the first microstructural characterization of the Monte Perdido Glacier, focused on a high-impurity concentration segment that belongs to an ice core drilled in 2017. The results reveal the ice has a layering defined by air bubbles and non-soluble impurities. The bubble-defined layering exhibits features of both a primary (sedimentary) and a secondary (strain-induced) origin. We found a clear inverse correspondence between the particle concentration and the grains' size and roundness index. A preliminary micro-Raman characterization of the particles shows the occurrence of atacamite, anatase (likely related to ancient mining activities in the vicinity of the glacier) and quartz. The latter could be an indicator of mineral dust, probably suggesting the arrival of dust-laden air masses from the north of the African continent.

Landscape genetics of the protected Spanish Moon Moth in core, buffer, and peripheral areas of the Ordesa y Monte Perdido National Park (Central Pyrenees, Spain)

Conservation managers need to know the degree of connectivity showed by the populations to be preserved, especially when protected areas and/or species are involved. One of the conservation projects carried out by the Ordesa y Monte Perdido National Park (Central Pyrenees, Spain) is the monitoring of the protected Spanish Moon Moth, Graellsia isabellae (Lepidoptera, Saturniidae), in several sites within the actual park, buffer zone, and peripheral area. Here we studied the genetic diversity, geographical structure, and connectivity of this iconic insect in those areas with the aim of producing evidence-based recommendations that might help the National Park staff in their decision-making. For this, we non-lethally sampled 402 adult moths from 17 sites and worked at two geographic scales: Western/Central Pyrenees and the area monitored by the staff of the National Park. The multilocus genotypes obtained for nine nuclear microsatellite markers allowed us to quantify genetic variation, investigate population structure, and calculate recent migration rates. Our results revealed a large-scale (ca. 125 km) west–east cline in allele frequencies that causes low overall genetic differentiation (FST = 0.038) and similar levels of diversity among sites. Habitat connectivity revealed as an important element determining dispersal for G. isabellae, given the patchy distribution of the host plant (Pinus sylvestris) in the study area. Gene flow within and outside the National Park was proved, with a particular site of the buffer zone (Bujaruelo) acting as a source of migrants to other localities within and outside the National Park. This finding underlines the importance of considering buffer zones to preserve genetic diversity within protected areas, and that safeguarding the connectedness of pine patches is key to the conservation of this iconic moth.

A regionalized IO-model to value seasonal recreational ecosystem services in a mountain National Park in Spain

Recreational Ecosystem Services (RES) are among the most frequently evaluated ecosystem services. RES are seen as a major opportunity for sustainable development in areas of high ecological value resulting from the presence of emblematic species, habitats or scenery, often integrated in conservation areas, in particular in mountain areas affected by depopulation, rising environmental risks and poverty. Economically, the assessment of RES has been based on Contingent Valuation and Choice Experiments, methods with limitations related to their subjectivity. Alternatively, Input-Output (IO) models provide a very accurate and effective way of valuation of RES with regional information regarding interindustry transactions. Whilst data on nature tourist expenditure may be only available annually, tourism inflows have a strong seasonal behavior, which impacts the profitability of several local economic activities. In this paper, we firstly constructed a novel regionalized IO-model based on Cross-Industry Location Quotients using employment data and, secondly, based on Monte Carlo simulation, we estimated nature tourist expenditure monthly using data on nature tourism inflows. This method allowed for a more precise RES evaluation, estimating direct, indirect and induced monthly economic impacts of nature-based tourism. The method was applied to the Ordesa and Monte Perdido (OMP) National Park in the Spanish Pyrenees. To estimate the average tourist expenditure, we collected and analyzed spending on commerce, hospitality and restaurants, leisure, and transport of 385 visitors. Results suggest that using a regionalized IO model leads to a considerable reduction of over-estimation of the economic impact of tourist expenditure estimated by conventional methods. Taking into consideration the direct, indirect and induced effects of tourist expenditure in 2016–2018, the total annual output effect in the OMP National Park amounted to €208.8 million, while the total income effect amounted to €86.29 million. Also, a total of 2,429 jobs were created which indicates that for each thousand annual visitors to the National Park, 3.8 jobs are created in the surrounding area. Overall, the proposed methodology can be easily applied to the remaining National Parks in Spain or other regions in the world, making it a valuable tool to estimate the value of RES in areas affects by strong seasonality, to set priorities and support regional policies for mountain sustainable development.

Glacial Ice Age Shapes Microbiome Composition in a Receding Southern European Glacier.

Glaciers and their microbiomes are exceptional witnesses of the environmental conditions from remote times. Climate change is threatening mountain glaciers, and especially those found in southern Europe, such as the Monte Perdido Glacier (northern Spain, Central Pyrenees). This study focuses on the reconstruction of the history of microbial communities over time. The microorganisms that inhabit the Monte Perdido Glacier were identified using high-throughput sequencing, and the microbial communities were compared along an altitudinal transect covering most of the preserved ice sequence in the glacier. The results showed that the glacial ice age gradient did shape the diversity of microbial populations, which presented large differences throughout the last 2000 years. Variations in microbial community diversity were influenced by glacial conditions over time (nutrient concentration, chemical composition, and ice age). Some groups were exclusively identified in the oldest samples as the bacterial phyla Fusobacteria and Calditrichaeota, or the eukaryotic class Rhodophyceae. Among groups only found in modern samples, the green sulfur bacteria (phylum Chlorobi) stood out, as well as the bacterial phylum Gemmatimonadetes and the eukaryotic class Tubulinea. A patent impact of human contamination was also observed on the glacier microbiome. The oldest samples, corresponding to the Roman Empire times, were influenced by the beginning of mining exploitation in the Pyrenean area, with the presence of metal-tolerant microorganisms. The most recent samples comprise 600-year-old ancient ice in which current communities are living.

Assessing the levels of intraspecific admixture and interspecific hybridization in Iberian wild goats (Capra pyrenaica).

Iberian wild goats (Capra pyrenaica, also known as Iberian ibex, Spanish ibex, and Spanish wild goat) underwent strong genetic bottlenecks during the 19th and 20th centuries due to overhunting and habitat destruction. From the 1970s to 1990s, augmentation translocations were frequently carried out to restock Iberian wild goat populations (very often with hunting purposes), but they were not systematically planned or recorded. On the other hand, recent data suggest the occurrence of hybridization events between Iberian wild goats and domestic goats (Capra hircus). Augmentation translocations and interspecific hybridization might have contributed to increase the diversity of Iberian wild goats. With the aim of investigating this issue, we have genotyped 118 Iberian wild goats from Tortosa‐Beceite, Sierra Nevada, Muela de Cortes, Gredos, Batuecas, and Ordesa and Monte Perdido by using the Goat SNP50 BeadChip (Illumina). The analysis of genotypic data indicated that Iberian wild goat populations are strongly differentiated and display low diversity. Only three Iberian wild goats out from 118 show genomic signatures of mixed ancestry, a result consistent with a scenario in which past augmentation translocations have had a limited impact on the diversity of Iberian wild goats. Besides, we have detected eight Iberian wild goats from Tortosa‐Beceite with signs of domestic goat introgression. Although rare, hybridization with domestic goats could become a potential threat to the genetic integrity of Iberian wild goats; hence, measures should be taken to avoid the presence of uncontrolled herds of domestic or feral goats in mountainous areas inhabited by this iconic wild ungulate.

The case of a southern European glacier which survived Roman and medieval warm periods but is disappearing under recent warming

Abstract. Mountain glaciers have generally experienced an accelerated retreat over the last 3 decades as a rapid response to current global warming. However, the response to previous warm periods in the Holocene is not well-described for glaciers of the southern Europe mountain ranges, such as the Pyrenees. The situation during the Medieval Climate Anomaly (900–1300 CE) is particularly relevant since it is not certain whether the southern European glaciers just experienced significant ice loss or whether they actually disappeared. We present here the first chronological study of a glacier located in the Central Pyrenees (NE Spain), Monte Perdido Glacier (MPG), carried out by different radiochronological techniques and a comparison with geochemical proxies from neighbouring palaeoclimate records. The chronological model evidences that the glacier persisted during the Roman period and the Medieval Climate Anomaly. The apparent absence of ice in the past ∼ 600 years suggests that any ice accumulated during the Little Ice Age has since ablated. This interpretation is supported by measured concentrations of anthropogenic metals, including Zn, Se, Cd, Hg and Pb, which have concentrations well below those typical of industrial-age ice measured at other glaciers in Europe. This study strengthens the general understanding that warming of the past few decades has been exceptional for the past 2 millennia.

Analysis, Systemization of the Impacts of Planning on the Territory: Applied to the Ordesa National Park

In recent decades, a new paradigm on the rational and careful use of land as a non-renewable resource has arisen. This definition requires new management methods based on the application of the “CLORPT” equation (state factor model) (CL—Climate, O—Organisms:living beings, R—Relief (topography), P—Parent material. T—Time. Thus, factors that we determine, as well as the impacts of planning, are analysed. We have used the factor model CLORPT (is an instrument by which any planning model can be analysed and diagnosed (e.g., planning carried out in the Ordesa National Park (Huesca-Spain)). The Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park has exceptional qualities in terms of landscape, lithology, fauna, flora, relief and climate. Its territorial-environmental value is mainly landscape and nature. A more sustainable use of National Parks is analysed, and possible problems observed for correction. This method provides a univocal vision as it standardizes all the factors. Large range quartiles were used so that even though expert opinions differed, the result was the same.

Mapping the potential distribution of frozen ground in Tucarroya (Monte Perdido Massif, the Pyrenees)

This paper shows the creation of a map of frozen ground potential for the Tucarroya valley in Ordesa National Park. To create this map, it was necessary to combine the identified landforms associated to the presence of frozen ground by fieldwork, ground temperature data continuously recorded during two years by automatic loggers, a Basal Temperature of Snow (BTS) survey, and predictor variables derived from a high resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM). Four environments have been differentiated: unfrozen ground, seasonal frozen ground, possible permafrost and probable permafrost. The map confirms a very limited variety and extension of permafrost, above 2700 m a.s.l. on gentle and shadowed slopes. Seasonal frozen ground is the most common thermal regime, as it can be developed above 2500 m a.s.l. Snow-pack duration and thickness tightly control the duration of frozen ground and the freezing-thawing cycles. Frost activity and unfrozen ground is restricted from 2570 to 2750 m a.s.l.

Hydrometeorological factors determining the development of water table cave patterns in high alpine zones. The Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park, NE Spain

This study is focussed on the geomorphological characterization and the processes driving the evolution of the highest karst system in Western Europe, which is located in the Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park (PNOMP), in the central-southern Pyrenees. The karst system does not seem to have a well-developed epikarst. The studied area shows a karst network of polygenic branchwork type in the vadose zone. Additionally, the explored karst conduits in the epiphreatic zone show a water table cave pattern that is different to the looping one, which is the expected cave pattern development for a karst located in a mountain zone where a high irregular recharge is expected. We have designed a conceptual recharge model through a multidisciplinary approach, which has included the making of a new detailed geological and hydrogeological map of the study area, morphometric analysis of cavities, tests with fluorescent dye tracers and hydrometeorological monitoring of the karst system associated with the Garcés Spring. This spring, together with the Font Blanca Spring, constitutes the main water discharge point of the hydrogeological system. The conceptual recharge model explains how the observed unexpected cave pattern has developed in this karst.

Snowmelt as a determinant factor in the hydrogeological behaviour of high mountain karst aquifers: The Garcés karst system, Central Pyrenees (Spain)

Time series of environmental tracers (groundwater stable isotope composition, electrical conductivity and temperature) and concentration breakthrough curves of artificial tracers (uranine, eosine, amino-G and naphtionate) have been analyzed to characterize fast preferential and slow matrix in-transit recharge flows in the Paleocene-Eocene limestone aquifer of the Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park, an alpine karst system drained by a water table cave, a rare hydrological feature in high mountain karst systems with similar characteristics. Snowmelt favors the areal recharge of the system. This process is reflected in the large proportion of groundwater flowing through the connected porosity structure of the karst aquifer, which amounts the 75% of the total system water discharge. From the perspective of water resources recovery, the water capacity of the fissured-porous zone (matrix) represents 99% of the total karst system storage. The volume associated to the karst conduits is very small. The estimated mean travel times are 9 days for conduits and 475 days for connected porosity. These short travel times reveal high vulnerability of the karst system to pollutants in broad sense and a great impact of climate change on the associated water resources.

Soil-geomorphology relationships determine the distribution of the main subalpine grasslands in the Central Pyrenees (NE-Spain)

The two most widely extended mountain grasslands in Europe (Nardus-mat grasslands and chalk grasslands) are distributed forming complex patterns. In the Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park (Central Pyrenees, NE-Spain), they grow as secondary pastures within the treeline ecotone at the subalpine belt. This work aims to show the influence of soil properties on the spatial distribution of these pastures, under a dynamic geomorphology. Soils are sampled under both grasslands, which grow on different cumulative levels: Nardus-mat grasslands in the upper level (L1) and chalk grasslands in the lower level (L2). Soils in L1 have a significantly higher acidity, lower soluble ions and exchangeable calcium content than those in L2, reflecting a more intense leaching process, consistent with a longer period of slope stability. Qualitative differences are detected in the soil organic matter of the soil, using carbon and nitrogen isotopes, lighter in L2 soils than in L1 soils, due to a higher proportion of legumes growing in L2 (chalk grasslands). Soils in L1 and L2 shared many physical properties, such as a fine and homogeneous texture in the whole profile (silty clay or silty clay loam), and high aggregate stability and porosity in the topsoil. In contrast, the soils in L2 are shallower than in L1, which reduces their water-holding capacity. The soil is classified as Orthoeutric Cambisol (Clayic, Humic) in L1 but its rejuvenation, by gully erosion, transforms it into an Hypereutric Leptosol (Loamic, Ochric) in L2 (Typic Haplocryept and Lithic Haplocryept, respectively by Soil Taxonomy system). Definitely, the distribution of both grasslands for the studied area is linked to two cumulative levels of different ages, which in turn is strongy related to different soil properties.

Modelling Natural Capital: A Proposal for a Mixed Multi-criteria Approach to Assign Management Priorities to Ecosystem Services

Investment in natural capital is increasingly necessary and urgent considering the increasing loss of global bio- diversity and the associated social and economic losses. Ecosystem services are tools for quantifying the stock of natural capital and there is great concern about their assessment and valuation. However, there remains a substantial gap between the large amount of information available about ecosystem services and the information required to support decisions and this undermines the efficiency of their management. Multi-criteria analysis techniques can be very useful to efficiently develop decision-making processes to properly channel investment and optimize the costs associated with conservation. This paper proposes an innovative mixed methodology for multi-criteria analysis to assign priorities to ecosystem services in protected areas in terms of importance and vulnerability. The model was applied by a group of experts to prioritize 20 ecosystem services in the Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park. In order to collect and analyze the individual valuations, a mixed method of Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Goal Programming (GP) was used, and to aggregate the valuation criteria, a Joint Relevance Index (JRI) was used, which presents the relative importance of each service in an aggregated way. The results show that conservation policies should be primarily directed towards life-cycle maintenance and water conditions. Depending on the vulnerability of the services, conservation policies should be channeled towards provisioning services related to wild animals and wild plants. Considering the relative importance of services in the park, priority should be oriented to life-cycle maintenance, water conditions and intellectual interaction with the environment.

Hydrogeological research in the Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park (Huesca, Spain)

The National Park of Ordesa and Monte Perdido (PNOMP) is the largest mountainous limestone massif of Western Europe. It has the highest altitude karst of the whole Europe. Groundwater is essential for the genesis, development and evolution of the park. The spatial distribution of recharge infiltration capacity is obtained by using the APLIS method. Additionally, a preliminary estimation of recharge is obtained by using the HBV and Visual Balan codes. The values of average surface runoff, evapotranspiration and recharge for the whole Paleocene-Eocene aquifer in the park are respectively about 160, 360 and 1227 mm/yr, or 10, 20 and 70% of yearly precipitation. Average recharge ranges between 72 and 77% of yearly average precipitation. This highlights the high vulnerability of water resources of PNOMP to possible climate and global change, according to surface and deep karstification and the snow cover during several months a year. Water is mainly of the calcium bicarbonate and calcium-magnesium bicarbonate types. There is a dominant process of calcite dissolution, which is consistent with the carbonate nature of the most abundant materials in the park (Upper Cretaceous and Lower Paleocene Eocene). Other observed hydrogeochemical processes are anhydrite and/or gypsum dissolution, as well as a possible incongruent dissolution of dolomite in the Ordesa Valley. Water stable isotopes show that the fronts that produce the greatest precipitations come from the Atlantic Ocean. In autumn, winter and spring there is a deuterium excess in the recharge water which is assumed to be related with diurnal snow sublimation and night water vapour condensation over the snow pack. The recharge elevation zone is located between 1950 and 2600 m asl, and most of the sampled springs show short transit times, between 1 and 4 years, although one of the springs (Fuen dero Baño) shows the influence of a slowly changing regional groundwater flow system.

Periglacial environments and frozen ground in the central Pyrenean high mountain area: Ground thermal regime and distribution of landforms and processes

AbstractThe periglacial belt is located in the highest parts of temperate mountains. The balance between mean air and ground temperatures and the presence of water determine the effectiveness of periglacial processes related to permafrost, the active layer or seasonally frozen ground (SFG). This study combines thermal and geomorphological data obtained in four Pyrenean massifs (Infierno‐Argualas, Posets, Maladeta and Monte Perdido) to improve knowledge on the occurrence and distribution of frozen ground. The methodology used is based on the study of landforms as frozen ground indicators, mapping processes, ground temperature analysis, basal temperature of snow, thermal mapping and geomatic surveys on rock glaciers and protalus lobes. In the Pyrenean high mountain areas the lower limit of frozen ground is at ~2,650m a.s.l., possible permafrost appears above 2,650m a.s.l. on north‐ and south‐facing slopes, and probable permafrost is dominant above 2,900m a.s.l. Unfrozen ground with cold‐associated geomorphological processes reach 2,900m a.s.l. and unfrozen and frozen ground distribution points to a patchy pattern throughout the periglacial belt. The most widespread frozen grounds are SFG. The thermal data, mean annual ground temperature, cold season temperatures, bottom temperature snow measurements, freeze/thaw cycles and distribution of landforms permit the establishment of a periglacial land system divided into three main belts: infraperiglacial, middle periglacial and supraperiglacial. The large number of processes and landforms that are involved and their altitudinal and spatial organization make up a complex environment that determines the geoecological dynamics of high mountain areas.

Winners and losers of landscape changes over the last sixty years in one of the oldest and southernmost national parks of the European Alpine region: Ordesa and Monte Perdido

Traditional land-use decline in Mediterranean mountains is translating into extensive forest recovery and the loose of “cultural landscapes”. In this context, the management of semi-natural ecosystems plays a fundamental role for the future preservation of species and processes, particularly in protected areas, and managers need rigorous information for an integrative interpretation of the long-term and complex effects of land cover replacement. Here we analyze changes in the land cover structure of the Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park and its peripheral protection zone, by comparing 7 types of patches from aerial photographs taken in 1956 and 2015. Then, we discuss how this process affected landscape diversity and two kinds of potential vulnerable plants. We found higher changes in the unprotected than protected areas, concentrated below the treeline in both cases, as a result of forest densification and strong reduction of anthropic and unvegetated areas. Total edge of patches decreased, as well as the number of patches, whereas mean patch size increased, indicating that patches merged and ecotones reduced. Shannon diversity index of the landscape decreased too, confirming a simplification of the system. Most Pyrenean endemic plants and threatened ones occur either on stable grasslands over the treeline, “winner” forests, or as rocky specialists irrespective of the land cover class. Therefore, past landscape changes do not seem to have affected them negatively, and forest expansion could also benefit several plants and tree-dominated communities at the south limit of distribution (Abies alba, Fagus sylvatica, Pinus uncinata). Landscape simplification, however, translates into plant diversity reduction too, which could be slowed down by creating or keeping small open patches inside matrices of forest. Maximization of plant diversity would require in this case some human perturbation, but at lower intensity than in the far past, in order to preserve large stands of old forests too.

Waterfalls as Geological Value for Geotourism: the Case of Ordesa and Monte Perdido National Park

Studies of the variables that make waterfalls an undoubted attraction for geotourism remain relatively rare. Through surveys in Parque Nacional de Ordesa and Monte Perdido (Spain), we analyze some of the most important variables of waterfalls, such as morphological characteristics, discharge, or esthetic aspects, including scenery. Statistical analysis reveals differences in the perception of attractiveness between seasons of the year. Spring seems to produce the best effect. Changes in perception affect most of the variables studied. However, there are complex relationships between seasons of the year and the variables studied. Slight changes in discharge lead to a positive perception by geotourists of morphological and esthetic variables, although these variables are apparently disconnected. The correlation between scenery and waterfall beauty is significant, at a 0.05 p value, but despite this, geotourists do not choose any specific environment as the best location for a waterfall. Surprisingly, an urban environment can become an ideal place, at the same level as a different but wilder one. The geological characteristics that encompass a waterfall are another strong and important point in the preferences of the visitor. The abundant scientific-geological information about waterfalls and their surroundings could be used as an informative complement to improve the quality of visits. Geotourists already demand this information. An adequate waterfall classification, the use of genetic aspects, and the processes involved in a specific waterfall feature could be of interest in interpretative signs or brochures. The findings of our study could be used in management strategies as new designs for viewing points, trail access, location of interpretative boards, and educational programs.

Ground-based remote-sensing techniques for diagnosis of the current state and recent evolution of the Monte Perdido Glacier, Spanish Pyrenees

ABSTRACTThis work combines very detailed measurements from terrestrial laser scanner (TLS), ground-based interferometry radar (GB-SAR) and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to diagnose current conditions and to analyse the recent evolution of the Monte Perdido Glacier in the Spanish Pyrenees from 2011 to 2017. Thus, this is currently one of the best monitored small glacier (<0.5 km2) worldwide. The evolution of the glacier surface was surveyed with a TLS evidencing an important decline of 6.1 ± 0.3 m on average, with ice losses mainly concentrated over 3 years (2012, 2015 and 2017). Ice loss is unevenly distributed throughout the study period, with 10–15 m thinning in some areas while unchanged areas in others. GB-SAR revealed that areas with higher ice losses are those that are currently with no or very low ice motion. In contrast, sectors located beneath the areas with less ice loss are those that still exhibit noticeable ice movement (average 2–4.5 cm d─1 in summer, and annual movement of 9.98 ma─1 from ablation stakes data). GPR informed that ice thickness was generally <30 m, though locally 30–50 m. Glacier thinning is still accelerating and will lead to extinction of the glacier over the next 50 years.

Hidden diversity in forest soils: Characterization and comparison of terrestrial flatworm's communities in two national parks in Spain.

Terrestrial flatworms (Platyhelminthes, Tricladida, and Geoplanidae) belong to what is known as cryptic soil fauna of humid forests and are animals not easily found or captured in traps. Nonetheless, they have been demonstrated to be good indicators of the conservation status of their habitat as well as a good model to reconstruct the recent and old events affecting biodiversity. This is mainly due to their delicate constitution, their dependence on the integrity of their habitat, and their very low dispersal capacity. At present, little is known about their communities, except for some studies performed in Brazil. In this work, we analyze for the first time in Europe terrestrial flatworm communities. We have selected two protected areas belonging to the Red Española de Parques Nacionales. Our aims include performing a first study of the species richness and community structure for European terrestrial planarian species at regional and local scale. We evaluate the effect of type of forests in the community composition and flatworms’ abundance, but also have into account the phylogenetic framework (never considered in previous studies) analyzed based on molecular data. We find differences in the species composition among parks, with an astonishingly high diversity of endemic species in the Parque Nacional de Picos de Europa and an extremely low diversity of species in the Parque Nacional de Ordesa y Monte Perdido. These divergent patterns cannot be attributed to differences in physical variables, and in addition, the analyses of their phylogenetic relationships and, for a few species, their genetic structure, point to a more probable historical explanation.