Monsanto Company Research Articles

Vitamin E and genistein generate a cytoprotective effect on polychlorinated biphenyl- induced oxidative stress in testicular Leydig cells

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are industrial substances which were widely used in industrial applications starting from the 1930s until the mid-1970s. Aroclor 1242 (A1242) is a commercial PCB mixture with 42% chlorine manufactured by the Monsanto Chemical Company in St. Louis, Missouri, USA. Previous studies suggested that PCBs have inhibitory effect on reproductive function, developmental abnormality, and impaired reproductive ability. PCBs may also affect the endocrine system by reducing the testosterone synthesis and the activity of steroidogenic enzymes in Leydig cells. This study was performed to investigate the specific effects of A1242 on the viability of Leydig cells, oxidative damage, and the profile of steroidogenic enzymes in an in vitro culture. The therapeutic effects of vitamin E (VitE) and genistein (Gen), as two antioxidants, in mitigating the damage produced by A1242 were also evaluated. TM3 Leydig cells were exposed to 10-8 and 10-6 M of A1242 and VitE (50µM) and Gen (10µM) as antioxidant for 24 h. After the exposure period, the Leydig cells were assessed to determine their viability using a cell viability assay. Measurements were performed for lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and steroidogenic enzymes. The results showed that cell viability was reduced after A1242 exposure, while lipid peroxidation and ROS increased. Steroidogenesis was interrupted in a concentration-dependent manner. Following A1242 exposure, administrations of VitE or Gen as an antioxidant reduced hazardous effects of A1242 on Leydig cells. Our results showed that exposure to A1242 may impair Leydig cell function and cause toxicity in Leydig cells and that VitE and Gen treatment exhibited therapeutic effects against this toxicity.

Discovery of 1,2,4-Oxadiazole Derivatives Containing Haloalkyl as Potential Acetylcholine Receptor Nematicides.

Plant-parasitic nematodes pose a serious threat to crops and cause substantial financial losses due to control difficulties. Tioxazafen (3-phenyl-5-thiophen-2-yl-1,2,4-oxadiazole) is a novel broad-spectrum nematicide developed by the Monsanto Company, which shows good prevention effects on many kinds of nematodes. To discover compounds with high nematocidal activities, 48 derivatives of 1,2,4-oxadiazole were obtained by introducing haloalkyl at the 5-position of tioxazafen, and their nematocidal activities were systematically evaluated. The bioassays revealed that most of 1,2,4-oxadiazole derivatives showed remarkable nematocidal activities against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, Aphelenchoides besseyi, and Ditylenchus dipsaci. Notably, compound A1 showed excellent nematocidal activity against B. xylophilus with LC50 values of 2.4 μg/mL, which was superior to that of avermectin (335.5 μg/mL), tioxazafen (>300 μg/mL), and fosthiazate (436.9 μg/mL). The transcriptome and enzyme activity results indicate that the nematocidal activity of compound A1 was mainly related to the compound which affected the acetylcholine receptor of B. xylophilus.

"Ashamed to Put My Name to It": Monsanto, Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, and the Use of Fraudulent Science, 1969-1985.

One of the most well-documented episodes of scientific manipulation and overt fraud was the scandal involving Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories (IBT) in the 1970s and the chronic toxicity tests it conducted on behalf of Monsanto that ultimately led to the indictment and conviction of employees of IBT and the Monsanto Corporation. IBT, at the time the nation's largest private laboratory, served a range of industries and government agencies. IBT conducted about 22 000 toxicology studies for scores of corporations, representing between 35% and 40% of all tests conducted in private labs in the country. IBT has been justly condemned for its fraudulent activities in the 1970s, but no one has looked at the relationship between the corporate funders of IBT's research and its fraudulent practices. We use previously secret corporate documents that detail the role of IBT's largest customer, Monsanto, which used fraudulent data to influence government. This material, revealed through legal discovery proceedings now under way regarding polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and Roundup, show the long-lasting impact of Monsanto's behavior on efforts to regulate large corporations as well as on the long-term effects on human health. (Am J Public Health. 2023;113(6):661-666. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2023.307247).

THE GLOBAL PETROLEUMSCAPE AND ITS IMPACT ON DESIGN PRACTICE

Over the last century the petroleum industry’s rapid growth has been accompanied by a steady flow of aggressively promoted petroleum-based products. The petroleumscape’s spatial expansion and visual representation achieved widespread citizen buy-in. Following World War II the use of plastic materials in the building industry significantly increased through efforts from architects and industry leaders. The House of the Future, built by MIT architects, the Monsanto Chemical Company, and Disneyland exemplified a modern lifestyle: clean, functional, and fun. The architectural and technocratic dream of a mass-produced, fully plastic house that seemed possible in the post-war years did not survive the subsequent commercialisation of the plastics industry in the 1960s and 70s.

The Effect of Glyphosate on Human Sperm: In Vitro Approximation

Abstract Introduction Glyphosate is an herbicide used to eradicate illicit crops; however, its use is controversial due to different health problems associated with it. The present study aims to evaluate the effects of glyphosate on human sperm in vitro. Methods Twenty-two semen samples from healthy normozoospermic men were included; 11 semen samples were incubated with Panzer (INVESA S.A., Antiquia, Colombia) and 11 with Roundup (Monsanto Company, MO, USA). The changes in motility and viability were observed. Functional seminal parameters were evaluated as well. Results The samples exposed to glyphosate showed less motility and viability; a decrease in the potential of the mitochondrial membrane was observed, and an increase in the lipoperoxidation of the membrane was evidenced. Conclusion Based on the present results, we concluded that glyphosate has cytotoxic potential for exposed people and may affect their fertility.

Performance and mineral status of weaning pigs fed diets with different levels of glyphosate and tryptophan

Glyphosate-based herbicides (GBH), like Roundup, are used worldwide for weed control in genetically modified feed crops and pre-harvest desiccation of conventional crops, leaving glyphosate residues in feed made from these sources. Glyphosate possesses herbicidal and antimicrobial properties due to inhibition of the shikimate pathway, involved in aromatic amino acid synthesis in plants and microorganisms, including animal gut bacteria. Furthermore, glyphosate possesses mineral chelating properties. The objective of the present study was to investigate potential effects of dietary glyphosate residues (here glyphosate-amended feed) on livestock, focusing on performance and mineral status of weaning pigs. Two experiments were conducted with pigs from 20 litters (4 females and 4 males per litter), weaned on day 28 of age. In experiment I, 104 pigs from 13 litters were assigned to one of four treatments on the weaning day and fed a standard weaning diet amended with glyphosate as follows: no glyphosate (CON), 20 mg glyphosate/kg as Glyphomax HL (GM20) (Albaugh UK,Ltd., London, UK), 20 mg glyphosate/kg as IPA salt (IPA20) (Monsanto Company, St. Louis, MO, USA) and 200 mg glyphosate/kg as IPA salt (IPA200). The EU maximum residue level (MRL) of glyphosate is 20 mg/kg for a range of common feed ingredients. In experiment II, 56 pigs from seven litters were assigned to one of two treatments on the weaning day and fed a weaning diet similar to that used in experiment I, but without supplementation of crystalline tryptophan. The glyphosate amendments were: no glyphosate (CON-II) and 200 mg glyphosate/kg as IPA salt (IPA200-II). In both experiments, half of the pigs were euthanised on day 9/10 (referred to as day 9) and the other half on day 35 after commencement of the treatments. Individual weight, feed intake and faeces score were registered during the experiment, and small intestine digesta, blood and urine were sampled immediately after euthanising. Analysed levels of glyphosate in the diets were close to the intended levels; only, the glyphosate level in the control diets was not zero, indicating that glyphosate-free diets are difficult to obtain. The concentration of glyphosate in small intestine digesta, serum and urine reflected the treatment levels, e.g. at day 9, serum concentrations were 0.06, 10.9, 11.7 and 68.2 µg/L for CON, GM20, IPA20 and IPA200, respectively. Neither feed intake, growth rate, serum mineral concentrations nor faeces score were significantly affected by level or source (pure glyphosate salt or GBH) of the dietary glyphosate.

Food/Feed and Environmental Risk Assessment of Herbicide-tolerant and Insect-resistant Genetically Modified Maize NK603 x MON810 for Import, Processing, Food and Feed Uses under Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 (EFSA/GMO/UK/2004/01)

Food/Feed and Environmental Risk Assessment of Herbicide-tolerant and Insect-resistant Genetically Modified Maize NK603 x MON810 for Import, Processing, Food and Feed Uses under Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 (EFSA/GMO/UK/2004/01)

Explosions and Fires at the Ports of Texas City and Houston: A Comparative Analysis of Waterside-Landside Crises, 1947–2019

Explosions and Fires at the Ports of Texas City and Houston:A Comparative Analysis of Waterside-Landside Crises, 1947–2019 Eric Pearson (bio) Click for larger view View full resolution The SS Amoco Virginia on fire at Hess Terminal, November 8, 1959. Photo courtesy of the Houston Fire Memorial. [End Page i] At one point during a confused nightmare of efforts to check the roaring flames and rescue the injured, Jesse Caveness, Harris County civil defense director, declared: "If this ship [Amoco Virginia] blows, it will be worse than Texas City." —"Fire Menaces Oil Tanks in Houston Area," Chicago Daily Tribune, Nov. 9, 1959. The Houston Ship Channel is one of the busiest seaports in the United States. It extends from a turning basin located approximately four miles east of downtown Houston to the Gulf of Mexico between Galveston Island and Bolivar Peninsula, a distance of fifty-two miles.1 The channel has been deepened and widened over the decades in order to accommodate increasingly larger vessels to keep pace with the needs of Texas industry. It measures forty feet in depth for much of its length and from three hundred to four hundred feet in width.2 In addition to general cargo facilities, the channel is home to major petrochemical plants. The heavy concentration of these oil and gas companies presents the potential danger of explosions and fires, as was seen in 1959 when a major gasoline fire engulfed the tanker Amoco Virginia and in 1979 when the tanker Chevron Hawaii exploded after being struck by lightning [End Page 1] while loading oil. These events caused concern that a chain reaction of explosions among the chemical and petroleum industries that line the ship channel could touch off a disaster similar to the one at Texas City that killed more than five hundred people in 1947—the worst industrial accident in the nation's history. Historians have not fully explored the links between these disasters and how the lessons learned from them were (or were not) applied toward industrial safety and public welfare. There were varying degrees of carelessness in many of these incidents. Certain questions need to be asked regarding the roles government and industry have played since the Texas City disaster and each of the succeeding explosions and fires at the Port of Houston. What impact did these accidents have on industrial safety, pollution control, and Texas industrialization? The Texas City disaster started with a Liberty cargo ship named the Grandcamp, which was built in Los Angeles in 1942 and originally named the Benjamin R. Curtis.3 The ship was rather small compared to today's cargo vessels, measuring a length of 423 feet and a gross tonnage (a nonlinear measure of a ship's overall internal volume) of 7,176 tons. The United States transferred ownership of the vessel after the war to the French government, which changed the ship's name. The Grandcamp loaded cargo such as twine, cotton, peanuts, and drilling equipment in Houston prior to arriving in Texas City on April 11, 1947, to load ammonium nitrate fertilizer.4 This could not be done in Houston because the loading of ammonium nitrate was banned by the Houston Port Authority.5 U.S. Coast Guard regulations did not prohibit the loading of the chemical compound in Texas City due to the fact ammonium nitrate was listed as a "dangerous cargo" and not as an "explosive."6 The Port of Texas City in 1947 was home to several large plants, including "the Monsanto Chemical Company, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Stone Oil Co., Republic Oil Refining Company, 11 warehouses, 9 piers, one grain elevator, and two thirds of the residential area of Texas City," according to a Coast Guard report.7 Many residential blocks stood adjacent [End Page 2] to the industrial complex and the nearby docks where the Grandcamp was moored. Click for larger view View full resolution SS Grandcamp. Moore Memorial Public Library, Texas City. The Texas City disaster began on April 16, 1947, when a small fire started in one of the cargo holds of the Grandcamp, which contained some two thousand tons of ammonium nitrate in one hundred...

Detection of Four Types of Genetically Modified Maize by Polymerase Chain Reaction and Immuno-Kit Methods

To detect and identify four types of genetically modified (GM) maize, a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay and an immuno-assay kit were performed in this study. Primers specific to inserted genes in the Event 176 GM maize (Novartis company), Bt11 (Novartis company), MON810 (Monsanto company) and Liberty (AgrEvo company) were used to conduct the PCR assay. Four pairs of primers, namely, CDPK-cry (Event176), IV01-cry (Bt11), HS01-cry (MON810) and CM03-PA01 (Liberty) were used to identify the GM-maize. Results showed that the limit of detection for GM-maize were 0.01%, 0.1%, and 1% (w/w) as using HS01-cry, CDPK-cry and IV01-cry, and CM03-PA01 primers, respectively. The GM-maize references as well as 20 food-grade maize samples were also tested using a commercial immuno-kit. Three GM-maize references, Event176, Bt11 and MON810, and 6 corn-middling pellet samples were tested as positives; while 14 popcorn samples were negative. To confirm these results, the 20 food-grade maize samples were further tested by the PCR method. Two types of GM-maize were detected in popcorn samples; while 3-4 types of GM-maize were detected in the samples of corn middling pellets. The results of this study demonstrate that using PCR method is capable of differentiating four types of GM-maize from non-GM products; while the commercial immuno-kit can only be used for screening purpose. All samples, with positive or negative results as tested by immuno-kit, need to be further confirmed by the PCR method. The results of this study also reveal that marketed maize products are usually mixed with different types of GM-maize.

Detection of Genetically Modified Soybeans and Maize by the Polymerase Chain Reaction Method

The feasibility of detecting genetically modified (GM) soybeans and GM maize by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method is determined. Primers specific for inserted genes and crop endogenous genes in Roundup Ready soybeans (Monsanto company) and Event 176 GM maize (Novartis/Ciba-Geigy company) were applied. Four pairs of primers, namely, 35S (35S-promoter, originated from cauliflower mosaic virus), NOS (nopaline synthase-terminator, derived from Agrobacterium tumefaciens), EPSPS (5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase, obtained from A. tumefaciens strain CP4) and LE (endogenous gene lectin) were used to identify the GM soybeans. An additional three pairs of primers, including CDPK-cry (pollen-specific calcium-dependent protein kinase promoter - delta-endotoxin, acquired from maize and Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki, respectively), cryIA(b) (delta-endotoxin, evolved from B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki) and ivr (endogenous gene invertase) were directed to confirm the GM maize. Using 35S and EPSPS as primers, the method showed a limit of detection for samples containing 0.1% (w/w) of GM soybeans and containing 1% (w/w) of GM soybeans when NOS primers were applied. All soybean samples were evidenced by LE primer-PCR as soybean products. Detection limits of 0.1% (w/w) of GM maize in raw material using CDPK-cry primers and 2% (w/w) of GM maize with cryIA(b) were established. The maize products were also approved by Invertase primer-PCR. To further confirm detection of the target GM soybean by PCR, the 195 bp fragment, amplified from 35S-PCR, digested with endonuclease XmnI resulted in 80 and 115 bp fragments, while digesting the 180 bp amplified products from NOS-PCR using endonuclease NsiI. yielded 96 and 84 bp fragments. The data further revealed that the PCR method can sufficiently differentiate GM soybeans and maize from non-GM products.

Establishment of quantitative method for five events of genetically modified maize (Bt11, event176, GA21, MON810 and T25) by real-time QPCR

In order to meet the implementated labeling requirement, this study focused on the development of real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (real-time QPCR) method to detect genetically modified maize (GM-maize). Primers and probes specific for inserted genes in Event176, Bt11 (Syngenta company), MON810, GA21 (Monsanto company) and T25 GM-maize (Aventis company) were designed and used to conduct the real-time QPCR assays. A plasmid containing both transgene and internal control gene targets on the same molecules for each GM-maize event was also constructed as quantitative reference molecules. Further, constructed plasmids and test samples were applied to validate this quantitative system. Results showed that the slope of the standard curve generated by serial dilution of constructed plasmids was in the range of -3.31--3.45 with a correlation of 0.99-1.0. Test samples spiked 1%, 2% and 5% GM-maize were quantitated by the method developed in the study. The mean values of 1%, 2% and 5% test sample were between 1.01%-1.23%, 2.00%-2.31% and 4.46%-5.55%, respectively. The standard deviation (S.D.) ranged from 0.05 to 0.46 with coefficient variance (C.V.) of 5%-15%. The limit of quantitation was 0.1% (w/w) for these GM-maize crops. In addition, proficiency test samples were analyzed by the method developed in this study and good results were obtained.

Detection of genetically modified soybeans by PCR method and immunoassay kits

The suitability of detecting genetically modified (GM) soybeans by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunoassay kits is determined. Primers specific for inserted genes in the Roundup Ready™ soybean (RRS, Monsanto company) were applied. Four pairs of primers, namely, 35S (35S-promoter, originated from cauliflower mosaic virus), NOS (nopaline synthase-terminator, derived from Agrobacterium tumefaciens), EPSPS (5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase, obtained from A. tumefaciens strain CP4) and LE (endogenous gene lectin) were used to identify the GM soybeans. The detection limit of PCR was 0.1% (w/w) GM soybeans when primers 35S and EPSPS were used, and 1% when primers NOS were used. All soybean samples were evidenced by LE primer-PCR as soybean products. Results of Immunoassays by two kinds of kits, strip and ELISA were matched with PCR's, and feasibility of quantitation detecting GM soybeans is determined among 0∼2.5%. The data further revealed that the PCR method and immunoassay kits can sufficiently differentiate GM soybeans from non-GM products.

Assessment of genetically modified oilseed rape GT73 for renewal authorisation under Regulation (EC) No1829/2003 (applicationEFSA-GMO-RX-002).

Following the submission of application EFSA‐GMO‐RX‐002 under Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 from Monsanto Company, the Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms of EFSA (GMO) was asked to deliver a scientific risk assessment on the data submitted in the context of the renewal of authorisation application for the herbicide‐tolerant genetically modified oilseed rape GT73. The data received in the context of this renewal application contained post‐market environmental monitoring reports, a systematic search and evaluation of literature, updated bioinformatic analyses and additional documents or studies performed by or on behalf of the applicant. The GMO Panel assessed these data for possible new hazards, modified exposure or new scientific uncertainties identified during the authorisation period and not previously assessed in the context of the original application. Under the assumption that the DNA sequence of the event in oilseed rape GT73 considered for renewal of authorisation is identical to the sequence of the originally assessed event, the GMO Panel concludes that there is no evidence in renewal application EFSA‐GMO‐RX‐002 for new hazards, modified exposure or scientific uncertainties that would change the conclusions of the original risk assessment on oilseed rape GT73.

Politicizing the Use of Glyphosate in Europe: Comparing Policy Issue Linkage across Advocacy Organizations and Countries

The European Citizens’ Initiative enables advocacy organizations to place policy issues on the political agenda. Which frames did advocacy organizations use to mobilize the support of citizens for the initiative on banning glyphosate and to politicize this issue? The article shows for France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, and Spain that some advocacy organizations linked the issue of glyphosate to the related issue of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and/or referred to the controversial Monsanto company in their mobilization campaigns and politicization strategies. Whether or not advocacy organizations linked glyphosate to GMOs/Monsanto was determined by their organizational goals.

Lactational response of early-lactation Holstein cows fed starch or floury corn silage

The study objective was to evaluate the lactational performance of early-lactation dairy cows fed a total mixed ration (TMR) based on corn silage produced from a standard starch hybrid compared with 2 floury starch hybrids. Twenty-one (6 primiparous and 21 multiparous) high-producing, early-lactation Holstein cows were blocked by calving date and parity and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 experimental corn silages from wk 4 through wk 12 postpartum using a randomized complete block design with wk 3 as a covariate. The Dekalb blend (STA; Monsanto Company, St. Louis, MO), Masters Choice 527 (LF1; Masters Choice, Anna, IL), and Masters Choice 5250 (LF2) treatments were planted and harvested as corn silage using a kernel processor silage harvester, inoculated, and ensiled in individual Ag-Bags (Ag-Bag, St. Nazianz, WI). The TMR were formulated to be isonitrogenous at 17.5% crude protein consisting of 15.9% alfalfa hay, 35.1% concentrate mix, and 48% of the respective experimental corn silage on a dry matter basis. Crude protein content of STA and LF2 was lower than LF1 corn silage. Starch content was higher for STA compared with LF1 and LF2 silage. The TMR digestible fiber (neutral detergent fiber) concentration was lower for STA than LF1 and LF2 (14.0, 15.5, and 17.9% dry matter for STA, LF1, and LF2, respectively). Growing crop year affected corn silage vomitoxin (0.60, 1.45, and 1.56 mg/kg) concentrations, which may have affected lactational performance as STA corn silage was from 2013, whereas LF1 and LF2 were from the 2012 crop year. Dry matter intake (22.9, 23.5, and 22.4 kg/d), milk yield (35.6, 34.8, and 36.1 kg/d), 3.5% fat-corrected milk yield (38.7, 36.5, and 37.6 kg/d), energy-corrected milk yield (38.2, 36.1, and 38.1 kg/d), feed efficiency (1.79, 1.61, and 1.67 kg/kg; 3.5% fat-corrected milk/dry matter intake), milk fat (4.17, 3.94, and 3.71%), milk protein (3.12, 3.09, and 3.03%), lactose (4.93, 4.92, and 4.92%), solids-not-fat (8.96, 8.92, and 8.85%), body weight change (-0.10, -0.06, and -0.08 kg/d), and body condition score change (-0.05, -0.04, and -0.05 score/d) were similar for early-lactation dairy cows fed all corn silage hybrids. Lower ruminal pH and acetate along with higher propionate molar percentages were reported for cows fed STA compared with cows fed LF1 and LF2. Early-lactation dairy cows fed a corn silage with lower starch and higher digestible fiber concentrations resulted in similar milk production compared with cows fed higher starch and lower digestible fiber concentrations.

Assessment of genetically modified maize MON88017 for renewal authorisation under Regulation (EC) No1829/2003 (applicationEFSA-GMO-RX-014).

Following the submission of application EFSA‐GMO‐RX‐014 under Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 from Monsanto Company the Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms of the European Food Safety Authority was asked to deliver a scientific risk assessment on the data submitted in the context of the renewal of authorisation application for the insect‐resistant and herbicide‐tolerant genetically modified maize MON 88017, for food and feed uses, excluding cultivation within the EU. The data received in the context of this renewal application contained post‐market environmental monitoring reports, a systematic search and evaluation of literature, updated bioinformatic analyses, and additional documents or studies performed by or on behalf of the applicant. The GMO Panel assessed these data for possible new hazards, modified exposure or new scientific uncertainties identified during the authorisation period and not previously assessed in the context of the original application. Under the assumption that the DNA sequence of the event in maize MON 88017 considered for renewal is identical to the sequence of the originally assessed event, the GMO Panel concludes that there is no evidence in renewal application EFSA‐GMO‐RX‐014 for new hazards, modified exposure or scientific uncertainties that would change the conclusions of the original risk assessment on maize MON 88017.

Final Health and Environmental Risk Assessment of Genetically Modified Maize MON 89034

Final Health and Environmental Risk Assessment of Genetically Modified Maize MON 89034

Analysis of scientific production on glyphosate: An example of politicization of science

Glyphosate is one of the most used herbicides worldwide. However there still exists a strong debate about its effects on the environment or people health. In this context, the metric analysis is a methodology increasingly used to quantify and evaluate the scope of the scientific production around a specific topic. The goal of this work was to characterize the context of knowledge generation about glyphosate. All the scientific production linked to glyphosate was analyzed in the period from 1974 to 2016, using the Web of Science (WOS) as a source of information and “glyphosate” as a search criterion. A total of 8174 records were found. The bibliographic production on this herbicide experienced a sustained increase. There was a concentration in knowledge generation led by the United States. Monsanto Company produced the largest number of articles during the first thirty years of the development of this topic. Research around glyphosate in South America gained importance as of the year 2000, with Brazil being the country with the highest production followed by Argentina. A large proportion of research was focused on agricultural science, while the analysis of toxicology or environmental effects did not begin until the year 2000, and it is still insufficient.

Abstract

The recent classification of glyphosate as a probable human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) was arrived at without a detailed assessment of exposure. Glyphosate is widely used as an herbicide, which might result in exposures of the general public and applicators. Exposures were estimated from information in the open literature and unpublished reports provided by Monsanto Company. Based on the maximum measured concentration in air, an exposure dose of 1.04_10 _ 6mg/kg body mass (b.m.)/d was estimated. Assuming consumption of surface water without treatment, the 90th centile measured concentration would result in a consumed dose of 2.25_10 _ 5mg/kg b.m./d. Estimates by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) of consumed doses in food provided a median exposure of 0.005mg/kg b.m./d (range 0.002–0.013). Based on tolerance levels, the conservative estimate by the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) for exposure of the general population via food and water was 0.088mg/kg b.m./d (range 0.058–0.23). For applicators, 90th centiles for systemic exposures based on biomonitoring and dosimetry (normalized for penetration through the skin) were 0.0014 and 0.021mg/kg b.m./d, respectively. All of these exposures are less than the reference dose and the acceptable daily intakes proposed by several regulatory agencies, thus supporting a conclusion that even for these highly exposed populations the exposures were within regulatory limits.

Monsanto, PCBs, and the creation of a \u201cworld-wide ecological problem\u201d

For the past three decades, we have written on the history of occupational and environmental health, authoring books and articles on lead poisoning, silicosis, asbestosis, and angiosarcoma of the liver, among other diseases. One book, Deceit and Denial, focused specifically on the chemical and lead industries. Because of the rarity of historians who study this history, we have been asked to testify on behalf of workers who allege harm from these industrial materials and by state, county, and local governments who seek redress for environmental damages and funds to prevent future harm to children. In about 2010, we began testifying in law suits brought by individuals who claimed that they had suffered from cancers, specifically non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, because of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in their bodies. At that time, we wrote a Report to the Court about industry knowledge of the dangers of PCBs to workers and the environment. More recently, we have been approached by attorneys representing government agencies on the West Coast of the United States which are seeking funds to abate PCB pollution in their ports, bays, and waterways. The focus of these lawsuits is the Monsanto Corporation, the sole producer of PCBs in the United States from the 1930s through 1977. Through these law suits, an enormous trove of previously private Monsanto reports, papers, memos, letters, and studies have been made available to us and this paper is the result of our examination of these hundreds of thousands of pages. The documents from this collection (with the exception of privileged materials that Monsanto has not made public, and upon which we have not relied) are available on www.ToxicDocs.org, the website we have developed with Professor Merlin Chowkwanyun of Columbia’s Mailman School of Public Health. (Almost all of the references that are from this collection can be accessed by readers by clicking on the reference hyperlink.) This monograph is adapted from a report to the court that was originally produced for litigation on behalf of plaintiffs in PCB lawsuits. We are grateful to the Journal of Public Health Policy for publishing this detailed examination of these documents and we hope it will stimulate further research into this important, and now public, archive of industry records.