Monoglyceride Content Research Articles

Glycerol esterification of free fatty acids catalyzed by zinc glycerolate for biodiesel production from acidified palm oil: Optimization, kinetic study, and process evaluation

AbstractBiodiesel is an important alternative renewable liquid fuel due to its eco‐friendly, non‐toxic, and lower emissions. In this work, glycerol esterification catalyzed by zinc glycerolate was employed as a pretreatment to prepare biodiesel from acidified palm oil. The effects of stirring rate, catalyst amount, glycerol to free fatty acids (FFAs) molar ratio, and reaction temperature on the conversion of FFAs and concentration of monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides were investigated and optimized. The results show that the conversion of FFAs could reach 99.16% under the optimized conditions. Moreover, the kinetics of glycerol esterification catalyzed by zinc glycerolate at 160–200°C was obtained. Additionally, a comprehensive evaluation of the new biodiesel production process was also conducted. As a result, higher biodiesel content in the crude biodiesel phase was obtained after transesterification and separation using this new process. Overall, the study contributes to the utilization of waste oils to produce renewable energy and to minimize the waste management problem.

In vitro digestion study comparing a predigested glycerolysis product versus long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid-rich oils (LCPUFA) as a strategy for administering LCPUFA to preterm neonates

Background & aimsMaintaining an adequate supply of arachidonic acid (ARA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is essential for optimal growth of preterm infants. This study aims to evaluate and compare the digestibility and bioaccessibility of ARA and DHA oils compared to their predigested product through an in vitro digestion model. MethodsAn in vitro gastrointestinal digestion model was used in two stages: gastric digestion and intestinal digestion. Samples of two polyunsaturated rich oils (ARA and DHA oils) and their predigested product (2:1, ARA: DHA) produced by enzymatic glycerolysis have been digested for 120 min. The final digestion product obtained was composed of three phases: an upper oily phase (OP) containing the undigested species, an intermediate micellar phase (MP) containing digested and bioaccessible lipids, and a precipitate phase (PP) with insoluble compounds. The reaction was monitored by taking aliquots and their subsequent lipid extraction and analysis. ResultsPoorer digestibility for ARA and DHA oils was observed based on the percentage of the oily phase (26.7% and 20%, respectively) found compared to the glycerolysis product (GP) oily phase (13.9%). The highest micellar phase was found in the GP (approx. 83%). On the other hand, the monoglyceride (MAG) content was lower in the digestion product (DP) from ARA and DHA oils, 4.3% and 9.2%, respectively, compared to the MAG observed in the DP of GP (15%). ConclusionConsidering the percentage of oily phase, micellar phase, and the MAG content, it can be concluded that the GP is more digestible and ARA and DHA are more bioaccessible than in its precursor oils.

Effects of Diacetinmonoglycerides and Triacetin on Biodiesel Quality

Triacetin offers a higher added value compared to glycerol and can be obtained during the interesterification reaction between methyl acetate and triglycerides. In the same reaction, diacetinmonoglyceride is produced as an intermediate compound. The objective of this study was to assess whether the biodiesel produced, with varying concentrations of these compounds, meets the requirements established by the EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 standards. To achieve this, several properties were measured, including density, kinematic viscosity, cloud point, pour point, cold filter plugging point, methyl ester content, mono-, di-, triglyceride and total glycerol content, as well as the vacuum distillation curve. These measurements were conducted on mixtures of triacetin, diacetinmonoglyceride, and biodiesel, using different types of biodiesel such as palm, soybean, sunflower and rapeseed. Additionally, the solubility of these ternary mixtures in conventional diesel was evaluated. The results indicated that the EN 14214 standard imposes limits on the density and viscosity of biodiesel, restricting the content of triacetin (up to 5–10% by weight) and diacetinmonoglyceride (up to 3–4% by weight). However, the content of monoglycerides presents the most restrictive condition, as the chromatographic technique used cannot differentiate between monoglycerides and diacetinmonoglycerides. Consequently, their content is limited to a range of 0.15% to 0.70% by weight, depending on the prevailing climate conditions. Similarly, the ASTM D6751 standard sets a limitation of 0.40% by weight for monoglycerides to three out of six grades of biodiesel. Based on the findings of this study, which demonstrate that diacetinmonoglycerides do not have adverse effects on the cold performance of biodiesel, the inclusion of diacetinmonoglycerides in biodiesel production would still necessitate the development of standard test methods capable of differentiating between monoglycerides and diacetinmonoglycerides.

Drug-excipient compatibility studies in formulation development: A case study with benznidazole and monoglycerides

Monoglycerides (MGs) such as glycerol monolaurate (GML) and glycerol monostearate (GMS) have been used as excipients in oral formulations because of their emulsifying effect as well as their ability to inhibit the precipitation and intestinal efflux of drugs. Excipient-drug compatibility studies, however, have been underexplored. In this study, benznidazole (BNZ) was selected as a drug model due to the difficulty in improving its solubility and because of the potential impact on public health (it is the only drug currently used to treat Chagas disease). The effect of different processing conditions (maceration, ball milling, and melting) on the physical-chemistry properties of BNZ/MGs mixtures was investigated to guide the rational development of new solid formulations. GML was more effective in improving the solubility of BNZ, which could be due to its more malleable structure, less hydrophobic nature, and greater interaction with BNZ. The formation of hydrogen bonds between the imidazole group of BNZ and the polar region of GML was confirmed by spectroscopy analyses (IR, 1H NMR). The higher the monoglyceride content in the mixture, the higher the BNZ solubility. Regardless of the method of processing the mixture, the drug was found to be crystalline. Polarized light microscopy analysis showed the presence of spherulites. Overall, these findings suggest that preparation methods of BNZ:MGs formulations that involve thermal or/and mechanical treatment have a low impact on the solid properties of the material, and this allows for the production of formulations with reproducible performance.

Comparative analysis of filterability behavior of B30 and B40 biodiesel blends on various porosity and dimension of fuel filter

This report is focused on comparative analysis of the impact of using biodiesel blends containing more than 30% biodiesel in diesel engine filtration systems. The objective of this study is to support the sustainability of the mandatory biodiesel utilization program by more than 30%. To evaluate filterability behavior of high-percentage biodiesel blends, namely B30 and B40 (30 and 40%-vol biodiesel on diesel fuel), the study employed the ASTM D 2068 Filter Blocking Tendency (FBT). After filter rig test, fuel filter pressure was also evaluated using the JIS 1617 standard method. It is important to note that fuel filter plays an important role in removing contaminants from fuel, and, hence, the effect of the difference in filter porosity needs to be observed with pressure difference across fuel filter monitored at the flow rate (0.03 m3/h and fuel temperature (15 ⁰C and 25 ⁰C). Furthermore, the effect of changes in temperature and surface morphology on the characteristics of filter was observed in this study. Based on FBT analysis, a polynomial regression (R2 > 0.98) was used to describe the relationship between FBT value and the effect of biodiesel blends on filterability. It was concluded that the temperature, monoglyceride content, and FAME concentration in the diesel fuel influenced their FBT. However, the rise in waxy particles at 15oC (near Cloud Point) could result in a more significant average pressure drop than at 25⁰C (ambient temperature). It was also found that a higher biodiesel mixture potentially results in a higher-pressure difference due to the lower fuel temperature and the formation of waxy contaminants that can clog filter.

Improving the technology of the synthesis of fatty acid monoglycerides using the glycerolysis reaction

The object of research is the process of fat glycerolysis in order to obtain fatty acid monoglycerides. Monoglycerides are an important component of chemical, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industry products. These substances are used as emulsifiers, structure formers, complex formers, etc. The industrial production of monoglycerides involves the use of complex technologies, as well as dangerous and unstable catalysts. An urgent task is to develop new catalysts and improve technologies for monoglycerides obtaining. The technology for the synthesis of monoglycerides by the glycerolysis method, which involves the reaction of vegetable hydrogenated fat with glycerol, was studied. Potassium glyceroxide was used as a catalyst, which is effective and safe in terms of production and use. Hydrogenated unrefined fat according to DSTU 5040 (CAS Number 68334-28-1) was used. The fat has non-standard parameters: the melting point is 51 °C, the mass fraction of moisture and volatile substances is 0.3 %, the acid value is 3.2 mg KOH/g, the peroxide value is 7.6 ½ O mmol/kg. The process duration was 90 minutes, the glycerol concentration was 50 %. Rational conditions for glycerolysis were determined: catalyst concentration (1.5 %) and temperature (140 °C). Under these conditions, the product ensured the stability of the “water – sunflower oil” emulsion of 96.8 %, the concentration of monoglycerides in the system was 0.1 %. Product parameters: mass fraction of monoglycerides – 72.5 %, free glycerol – 1.5 %, acid value – 1.7 mg KOH/g. The research results make it possible to improve the glycerolysis process using a new catalyst and obtain monoglycerides with high emulsifying ability. This will increase the profitability of the enterprise and increase the volume of production of high-quality monoglycerides for various industries

Enhancement of Flow Properties Biodiesel Using Sorbitan Monooleate

Depletion of fossil fuel and increased pollution caused by the burning of fossil fuel is a leading factor in to use of alternate energy especially palm oil biodiesel as a mixture of diesel oil fuel (B-XX). It was reported that the use of the B-20 caused a blockage in the vehicle’s fuel filter. The blockage is caused by the presence of deposits formed from the agglomeration of monoglycerides. Three different biodiesels with monoglyceride content were used 0.40% - 0.60% by mass. The addition of monoglyceride standards (monopalmitin, monostearin, and monoolein) to biodiesel increases the volume of monoglyceride precipitates formed. The presence of these deposits decreases the flow properties of B-20. Research has been carried out to improve the flow properties of biodiesel by adding Sorbitan Monooleate (CMOST) surfactant, especially cloud points (CP) and cold filter plugging point (CFPP) parameters. The addition of 0.10%w - 1%w CMOST can reduce the CP by 4.80oC and CFPP by 2oC. This proves that the addition of SMO will improve the flow properties of B-XX as an alternative energy.

Thermal degradation of glycidyl esters in monoglycerides and mono‐ and diglyceride blends

AbstractAs side products of concern, glycidyl fatty acid esters (GE) are an unwanted impurity in food emulsifier production. This study investigates the reduction of the GE content in such monoglycerides and their blends with diglycerides (mono‐/diglycerides) by thermal post‐treatment. The results indicate that the kinetics of GE reduction and equilibrium concentrations largely depend on the specific temperatures applied. For instance, while reaching equilibrium levels of GE can take several weeks at 80°C, they can be reached within hours at 150°C. The thermal treatment can have, however, also negative impact on other quality parameters, like the content of monoglycerides in both, distilled monoglycerides and mono‐/diglycerides. Based on 47 laboratory and pilot trials the influence of post‐treatment temperatures between 80 and 200°C on reducing GE levels has been systematically investigated. The obtained data were analyzed by mathematical modeling.

Modelling of Fuel Filter Clogging of B20 Fuel Based on the Precipitate Measurement and Filter Blocking Test

The amount of precipitate and residue affects the timing of fuel filter blockage. This study develops a model for fuel filter blocking based on the Precipitate Measurement. Firstly, a modification of ASTM D 7501 for the Cold Soak Filtration Test (CSFT) measured the amount of precipitate in B20 fuel with variations of soaking temperatures and monoglyceride content in biodiesel. Then, a modified ASTM D 2068 for a filter blocking test (FBT) was conducted to correlate the impurities in the B20 fuel and the clogging limit effects represented by the change of pressure difference and time to reach a pressure drop of 30 kPa. Biodiesel B20 samples were prepared by adding monopalmitin so that each had a monoglyceride value of 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, and 0.8% before blending with petroleum diesel. The modified CSFT showed that the amount of B0 impurity was almost zero. However, the amount of the B20 sample precipitate retained on the filter was higher when a lower soaking temperature and higher monoglyceride content was used in the biodiesel. Similar results in the modified FBT showed that the more impurities, the faster the pressure drop achieved a level of 30 kPa. A much shorter time was needed to reach the pressure drop of 30 kPa for B20 fuel samples with the impurities present in both test powders and precipitate compared to those for the B20 fuel samples with a single type of impurity (either test powders or precipitate). The fuel filter clogging time could also be predicted using the graph of fuel filter clogging time vs. the precipitate weight of B20 fuel derived from the FBT test if the precipitate weight had already been determined by the precipitation test (modified CSFT). The simulation model using Ergun’s equation for the FBT of the B20 fuel could also show similar results to that of the FBT experiment, with the difference (averaged errors) ranging from 4.15% to 5.79%.

Production of Biodiesel Distillate with Low Monoglycerides for B40 Component by Using Distillation Technique with 1 and 30 Plates Column

One of the quality standard indicators for biodiesel (fatty acid methyl ester, FAME) product specifications is monoglyceride content. Monoglycerides (MG) are residuals of the vegetable oil reactant that do not react completely in the process of making biodiesel, so that they become contaminants in biodiesel. The lower the monoglycerides in the biodiesel product, the better the quality of the biodiesel. In Indonesia’s B40 program, one scenario of adding 10% biodiesel is using FAME distillate on top of 30% regular FAME. The monoglyceride content in the FAME distillate for the B40 mixture was determined not to exceed 0.3 %wt. Distillation technique is one of the effective methods for reducing monoglyceride level in FAME. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of laboratory scale distillation with columns of 1 and 30 plates in reducing the monoglycerides concentrations. Refining FAME by true boiling point (TBP) distillation with 30 plates column under 5 mmHg vacuum at reflux ratio of 1; 2-3 showed that monoglyceride levels decreased significantly at the distillate fraction of 240-325 °C, from an initial level of 0.83 wt.% to 0.17 wt.%. Pour point temperature increased 2 times from the original biodiesel pour point temperature. The pour point temperature of distillate fractions of 240-325 °C, 325-330 °C and 330-335 °C were 12 °C, 21 °C and 24 °C, respectively. At the 340-345 °C distillate fraction, the pour point dropped drastically to 3 °C. By using 1 plate distillation column under operating 5 mmHg vacuum at a recovery rate of 90 %v, monoglycerides with an initial level of 0.83 wt.% can be reduced to 0.59 wt.%. distillate recovery. As the recovery rate of distillation level reduced to 86 vol%, the monoglycerides concentration was 0.29 wt.%.

TYPES OF CONTAMINANTS AND THEIR CONTENT IN VEGETABLE OILS

The article discusses the groups of pollutants most commonly found in the food industry. The results of the content of pollutants in vegetable oils are also presented, which indicates a fairly wide range of concentrations of monoglycerides, diglycerides and triglycerides. Various technological parameters of the deodorization process lead to such a wide range of values and require further research and development of technologies aimed at reducing the content of these compounds. The classification of pollutants is presented, individual groups of pollutants are considered in more detail, and the main measures for the prevention and prevention of the content of pollutants in food products are given. Therefore, knowledge about impurities and pollutants in food is of great practical importance and is considered an important food safety issue. The presence of impurities in food products that have no nutritional and biological value or are completely toxic threatens human health. Thus, in order to reduce the risks associated with the consumption of these compounds, it is necessary to develop effective technological methods for reducing the content of pollutants that can be used not only in production, but also on an industrial scale. And one of the important processes of reducing the content of pollutants in vegetable oils is the improvement of the oil purification process using various solvents.

Catalytic Transformation of Triglycerides to Biodiesel with SiO2-SO3H and Quaternary Ammonium Salts in Toluene or DMSO.

SiO2-SO3H, with a surface area of 115 m2·g−1, pore volumes of 0.38 cm3·g−1 and 1.32 mmol H+/g, was used as a transesterification catalyst. Triglycerides of waste cooking oil reacted with methanol in refluxing toluene to yield mixtures of diglycerides, monoglycerides and fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) in the presence of 20% (w/w) catalyst/oil using the hydrophilic sulfonated silica (SiO2-SO3H) catalyst alone or with the addition of 10% (w/w) co-catalyst/oil [(Bun4N)(BF4) or Aliquat 336]. The addition of the ammonium salts to the catalyst lead to a decrease in the amounts of diglycerides in the products, but the concentrations of monoglycerides increased. Mixtures of (Bun4N)(BF4)/catalyst were superior to catalyst alone or Aliquat 336/catalyst for promoting the production of mixtures with high concentrations of FAMEs. The same experiments were repeated using DMSO as the solvent. The use of the more polar solvent resulted in excellent conversion of the triglycerides to FAME esters with all three-catalyst media. A simplified mechanism is presented to account for the experimental results.

Prediction of B20 Storage Tank Precipitate Removal Based on Biodiesel Monoglyceride Content

Precipitate in B20 fuel stored in storage tanks can accumulate at the bottom level of the tank and affect the fuel filter, clogging in the fuel distribution and engine system. This study examines the precipitate formation prediction in B20 fuel based on the monoglyceride content in biodiesel. This research used a modified CSFT method of ASTM D7501 for the precipitation test. Monopalmitin was added to biodiesel with a variation of monoglyceride content. Each biodiesel sample was then blended with petroleum diesel fuel to produce two groups of samples. Each sample was separately soaked in the cooling chamber at constant and room temperature for 21 days. The bottom layer of each B20 fuel sample stored in the measuring cylinder was then pipetted and filtered, washed with petro-ether, vacuum-dried, and weighed for a constant amount of precipitate retained on the filter. The simulation results show that the ratios between the amount of collected precipitate at the bottom layer of the 2-liter measuring cylinder and the total amount of collected precipitate for the 2-liter measuring cylinder increased with the monoglyceride content biodiesel. This ratio was used to predict the amount of accumulated sludge for a given volume of B20 fuel loaded into the storage tank. This study shows the effect of monoglyceride content on the precipitation behaviour in the storage tank concerning general tank storage dimension parameters and B20 loading frequency. This approach can be applied to estimate the sludge removal frequency for biodiesel storage.

Composition of Brazil Nut (Bertholletia excels HBK), Its Beverage and By-Products: A Healthy Food and Potential Source of Ingredients.

The consumption of plant-based beverages is a growing trend and, consequently, the search for alternative plant sources, the improvement of beverage quality and the use of their by-products, acquire great interest. Thus, the purpose of this work was to characterize the composition (nutrients, phytochemicals and antioxidant activity) of the Brazil nut (BN), its whole beverage (WBM), water-soluble beverage (BM-S), and its by-products of the beverage production: cake, sediment fraction (BM-D), and fat fraction (BM-F). In this study, advanced methodologies for the analysis of the components were employed to assess HPLC-ESI-QTOF (phenolic compounds), GC (fatty acids), and MALDI-TOF/TOF (proteins and peptides). The production of WBM was based on a hot water extraction process, and the production of BM-S includes an additional centrifugation step. The BN showed an interesting nutritional quality and outstanding content of unsaturated fatty acids. The investigation found the following in the composition of the BN: phenolic compounds (mainly flavan-3-ols as Catechin (and glycosides or derivatives), Epicatechin (and glycosides or derivatives), Quercetin and Myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside, hydroxybenzoic acids as Gallic acid (and derivatives), 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, ellagic acid, Vanillic acid, p-Coumaric acid and Ferulic acid, bioactive minor lipid components (β-Sitosterol, γ-Tocopherol, α-Tocopherol and squalene), and a high level of selenium. In beverages, WBM had a higher lipid content than BM-S, a factor that influenced the energy characteristics and the content of bioactive minor lipid components. The level of phenolic compounds and selenium were outstanding in both beverages. Hydrothermal processing can promote some lipolysis, with an increase in free fatty acids and monoglycerides content. In by-products, the BM-F stood out due to its bioactive minor lipid components, the BM-D showed a highlight in protein and mineral contents, and the cake retained important nutrients and phytochemicals from the BN. In general, the BN and its beverages are healthy foods, and its by-products could be used to obtain healthy ingredients with appreciable biological activities (such as antioxidant activity).

A novel promising delivery system for cuminaldehyde using gelled lipid nanoparticles: Characterization and anticancer, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities

This work aimed to develop a novel nanoencapsulation system for food colloidal formulations using gelled lipid nanoparticles (GLNs) to improve the functionality, stability, and bioactivity of cuminaldehyde as a highly volatile and poor hydrophilic food additive. Cuminaldehyde-loaded GLNs with diameters of 117–138 nm were fabricated through a hot emulsification process with monoglyceride (10 and 15 g/100 g lipid phase) as a lipid gelator at two concentrations of cuminaldehyde (500 and 1000 mg/L). All samples remained stable towards macroscopic phase separation and creaming during 28 days of storage at 4 °C, which could be related to the rigid structure of dispersed particles in the gelled state and retarding droplet movement. Moreover, all samples were stable to creaming after subjecting to the environmental changes including temperature (30, 60, and 90 °C for 30 min), ionic strength (100, 200, and 300 mM NaCl), and pH (3, 5, and 7). Measurement of apparent viscosity showed non-Newtonian shear thinning nature in all samples, which was more pronounced at higher concentrations of the gelator. Interestingly, higher cytotoxic effects of cuminaldehyde against human lung and colorectal cancer cells were observed after encapsulation within GLNs. However, weak toxicity was also found against normal peripheral blood mononuclearcells.On the other hand, the antioxidant activity and lipid oxidation stability were improved by increasing cuminaldehyde concentration, while it was reduced at higher monoglyceride concentration. All samples exhibited stronger antibacterial activity against Bacillus cereus than Eschershia coli. These findings suggest the significant potential benefits of GLNs as novel nanocarriers to enrich various food and beverage formulations with essential oils, flavors, and aromas.

The effect of low temperature in enzymatic glycerolysis on monoglyceride concentration production using green emulsifier based refined bleached deodorized palm oil

The palm oil is a main commodity of plantation in Indonesia. It should be a good potential to produce many downstream products based on palm oil. But the reality is the export rate of crude palm oil is higher than the processing rate of downstream product. The aim of this study was to analyse one of downstream i.e., green emulsifier. The production used the enzymatic glycerolysis method without anorganic catalyst. The independent variables were reaction temperature 5, 10, 20, 35 and 55°C. The dependent variable was glyceride content (mono-, di- and triglyceride) that analysed by Gas Chromatography method. Before reacting, the first step was characterization of refined bleached deodorized palm oil (RBDPO) as the based material. The regression was determined using ANOVA with SPSS 2.0. If the result was significant, it would be continued with partial analysis and graphically trending. The results of this study showed that the glycerolysis temperature had significant on the monoglyceride but had no significant effect to the di- and triglyceride at alpha 10%. They show the lower temperature of glycerolysis, the higher monoglyceride was obtained. The advantage was able to produce high monoglyceride emulsifier but need the very strict control in processing.

Interfacial interaction of small molecular emulsifiers tea saponin and monoglyceride: Relationship to the formation and stabilization of emulsion gels

The oil-water (O-W) interface interaction of 1 wt% tea saponin (TS) and different monoglyceride (MAG) concentrations (0%–5%) was studied and further explored its relationship with emulsion gel properties. A combination of several analytical techniques such as microscopy, rheology, and infrared spectroscopy was used for macro and micro characterization of samples, respectively. Low concentrations (1%–3%) of MAG with TS had synergistic effects on the emulsification, the interface was dominated by fibrillar network of TS assembly though the co-adsorption of TS with the appropriate MAG. A combination of interfacial interaction and viscosity enhancement endowed obtained emulsion gels with improved properties, such as overall lower droplet size, homogeneous appearance, and better response to external deformations. However, in the presence of high MAG concentrations (4%–5%), interfacial films were readily subjected to the MAG crystal piercing, and with a reduced strength finally owing to the increasing distance and weakened hydrogen bonding of TS molecules. Besides, the interface and the subsequent formation and property of systems would be dominated by MAG. Thus, emulsion gels exhibited weak gel strength and declined stability. Because the number of protruding MAG crystals as well as the protruding distance was enhanced when the MAG content increased, droplet surface was completely destroyed and a collapsed system were formed. It was revealed that TS/MAG mixtures displayed interesting MAG concentration-dependence interfacial behaviors, which were closely related to the formation and stabilization of emulsions/emulsion gels. These findings would provide valuable information for the stabilization of emulsion gels involved in natural saponins.

Investigating the Impact of Crohn's Disease on the Bioaccessibility of a Lipid-Based Formulation with an In Vitro Dynamic Gastrointestinal Model.

The aim of the study was to investigate the impact of Crohn's disease (CD) on the performance of a lipid-based formulation of ciprofloxacin in a complex gastrointestinal simulator (TIM-1, TNO) and to compare the luminal environment in terms of bile salt and lipid composition in CD and healthy conditions. CD conditions were simulated in the TIM-1 system with a reduced concentration of porcine pancreatin and porcine bile. The bioaccessibility of ciprofloxacin was similar in simulated CD and healthy conditions considering its extent as well as its time course in the jejunum and ileum filtrate. Differences were observed in terms of the luminal concentration of triglycerides, monoglycerides, and fatty acids in the different TIM-1 compartments, indicating a reduction and delay in the lipolysis of formulation excipients in CD. The quantitative analysis of bile salts revealed higher concentrations for healthy conditions (standard TIM-1 fasted-state protocol) in the duodenum and jejunum TIM-1 compartments compared to published data in human intestinal fluids of healthy subjects. The reduced concentrations of bile salts in simulated CD conditions correspond to the levels observed in human intestinal fluids of healthy subjects in the fasted state.A lipidomics approach with ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC)/mass spectrometry (MS) has proven to be a time-efficient method to semiquantitatively analyze differences in fatty acid and bile salt levels between healthy and CD conditions. The dynamic luminal environment in CD and healthy conditions after administration of a lipid-based formulation can be simulated using the TIM-1 system. For ciprofloxacin, an altered luminal lipid composition had no impact on its performance indicating a low risk of altered performance in CD patients.

Cocoa olein glycerolysis with lipase <em>Candida antarctica</em> in a solvent free system

In this paper we present the valorization of cocoa olein obtained from the acid fat-splitting of soapstocks. The aim is to develop a solvent free process (enzymatically catalyzed) to maximize the production of a final product with high content of monoglycerides (MAG) and diglycerides (DAG). The effect of the enzyme dose, glycerol content, reaction times as well as the modification of the raw material and pressure were studied. The yield of the reaction increased up to 90-95% when using a vacuum of 2-3 mbar at 65 °C, enough to evaporate the water which is generated as a by-product, an enzyme dose of 1% and molar ratio oil:glycerol of 1:2. The highest yield in terms of MAG and DAG production was obtained by starting from a raw material which was rich in free acidity (FFA), rendering oil with 33.4 and 44.2% MAG and DAG, respectively. Short reaction times (6-8 h) were observed compared to previously reported results (24 h).

A Catalyst Reusability Study in Palm Fatty Acid Distillate and Glycerol Esterification using Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis and Reaction Kinetics Approach

As a byproduct of the physical refinement of crude palm oil, palm fatty acid distillate or PFAD has a potential to be transformed into monoglycerides by means of irreversible esterification with glycerol over a cation exchange resin catalyst. Irreversibility of the esterification can be assured by continuous azeotropic removal of water by adding xylene as an entrainer. Because PFAD-glycerol esterification demands high temperatures for fast conversion and high selectivity of monoglycerides, it is necessary to test catalyst reusability performance. In this research, evaluation of catalyst reusability performance was based on five parameters: free fatty acid conversion, the rate of free fatty acid decomposition, the selectivity of monoglycerides, monoglyceride concentration, and the cation exchange capacity of the catalyst. The cation exchange resin used was Tulsion T-42 SM. The evaluation was conducted using the simple multi-attribute rating technique extended to ranking (SMARTER) method. The results showed that the optimum reaction temperature was 180°C. Ultimately, a kinetic study at 180°C was also performed to model the reaction after using similar catalysts for certain times. This kinetic study revealed that the reaction mechanism changed from Langmuir-Hinshelwood to Eley-Rideal after several cycles of catalyst reuse.