Monoracial Counterparts Research Articles

Multiraciality and racialized politics in the United States

ABSTRACT In the United States, political ideology and political party affiliation provide important indicators of multiracial individuals’ place in the historic racial order. I ask the following research question: Do multiracials lean White or non-White in their political ideologies and political party affiliations? I argue that an individual’s racial identity shapes their political alignments, and multiracials’ alignments reveal how they affect racialized politics. I reference classic assimilation, minority trumping, and selection as theoretical frameworks that may indicate how multiracials are positioned in the contemporary racial order. Using the American National Election Study Time Series Studies (ANES 2008, 2012, 2016), I conduct a quantitative analysis (i.e. OLS regression models and multinomial logit models) and examine the relationship between respondents’ multiracial self-identification and political ideology and political party affiliation. Multiracials, who identify as White and non–White, experience an in-between effect, compared to their monoracial counterparts.

Religious Experiences, Expectations of Discrimination, and Distress Among Biracial Christians

Similar to their monoracial counterparts, Black–White biracial individuals experience negative psychological and social responses to discrimination and racial stigma, including experiencing fears of future discrimination (anticipated discrimination). Extending minority stress theory (MST) to the stigma-related experiences of Christians, a unique subgroup of the biracial population, this study assessed responses to future expectations of multiracial discrimination (FEMD; discrimination based upon biracial status) among a community sample of 199 Black–White biracial Christians. We hypothesized that various religious/spiritual experiences might moderate the association between FEMD and distress. Several moderation analyses were conducted evaluating the role of God-centered self-esteem, communion with God, and church support in moderating the association between FEMD and depression, anxiety, and stress. Church support moderated the association between FEMD and depression and stress in an unexpected direction. As participants’ FEMD increased, they reported more depression and stress symptoms, with more depressive and stress symptoms endorsed at medium and high levels of church support but not at low levels of church support. Furthermore, despite the lack of a moderating role in the association between FEMD and distress variables, communion with God demonstrated a negative association (a small effect) with depression, and God-centered self-esteem showed a negative association with depression (a medium effect) and anxiety (a small effect). Clinical implications and directions for future research are presented.

The Influence of Identity on Multiracial Emerging Adults' Health and Experiences Seeking Healthcare in the United States: a Qualitative Study.

The Multiracial population, defined as having parents who are of two or more racial groups, increased from 2.9% of the United States population in 2010 to 10.2% in 2020. Existing research focused on monoracial populations shows that racial disparities and discrimination affect health. This study explores how emerging adults ages 18-29, who identify as Multiracial, describe the impact of identity on their health and experiences seeking health care in the United States. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 21 participants in May 2021. Interview guide categories were the following: health and wellbeing, racial/ethnic identification, childhood upbringing, family influence, peer engagement, discrimination, forming resilience, language, and demographics. A thematic framework analysis was utilized. Overarching themes were as follows: mental health and Multiracial identity-related stress, childhood experiences, healthcare experiences, influences on seeking or not seeking care, and the impact of identity on physical health. Our findings suggest that Multiracial emerging adults perceive their identity to influence mental health more than physical health. Multiracial emerging adults face challenges with healthcare that are unique (e.g., discrimination based on identity defined or perceived by others) and others that are similar to their monoracial counterparts (e.g., structural racism, access to care). This study illustrates how structural factors trickle down to influence care sought and accessibility via socioeconomic status, insurance, childhood experiences, and racial and cultural beliefs about healthcare. Increased awareness and identification of Multiracial individuals and diversity in the workforce may help the US healthcare system better serve Multiracial emerging adults.

Mental health differences between multiracial and monoracial college students in the United States: Emerging racial disparities.

Multiracial individuals appear to be at higher risk for mental health problems; however, more research is needed to confirm these racial disparities among young adult college populations. We analyzed data from the Health Minds Study (N = 99728 young adult college students aged 18-34), collected online across 140 college campuses from September 2020 to June 2021. We used multivariable logistic regression to examine associations between multiracial identity and several mental health outcomes, including mental and behavioral health (depression, anxiety, languishing, perceived need, loneliness), self-injurious behaviors (non-suicidal self-injury, suicidal ideation, suicide plan, suicide attempt), and history of lifetime psychiatric disorders, adjusting for age and gender. Almost a tenth of the weighted sample were multiracial. Multiracial students had greater odds of all mental and behavioral health outcomes, self-injurious behaviors (though only marginally significant for suicide attempt), and most lifetime psychiatric disorders. Multiracial young adult college students were more likely to have mental health problems than their monoracial counterparts, calling for targeted preventive interventions on college campuses to address these mental health disparities.

Impact of Racial Categorization on Effect Estimates: An HIV Stigma Analysis.

Suboptimal racial categorization potentially introduces bias in epidemiologic analysis and interpretation, making it difficult to appropriately measure factors leading to racial health disparities. As part of an analysis focused on predictors of experiencing human immunodeficiency status (HIV)-related stigma among men who have sex with men living with HIV in San Francisco, we struggled with the most appropriate ways to categorize people who reported more than 1 racial identity, and we aimed to explore the implications of different methodological choices in this analysis. We fitted 3 different multivariable linear regression models, each utilizing a different approach to racial categorization: the "multiracial," "othering," and "hypodescent" models. We estimated an adjusted risk difference in mean score for reported frequency of experiencing HIV-related stigma on a 4-point scale, adjusting for age, race, gender identity, injection history, housing, mental health concerns, and viral load. Use of a hypodescent model for racial categorization led to a shift in the point estimate through the null for Blacks/African Americans, and it improved precision for that group. However, it obscured the association of increased stigma and race for multiracial people, compared with monoracial counterparts. We conclude that methodological decisions related to racial categorization of participants can dramatically affect race-related study findings in predictor regression models.

Conceptualizing and Measuring Biracial/Multiracial/Multiethnic Status: Friendship Homophily in Early Adolescence

This special issue highlights biracial/multiracial/multiethnic early adolescents as a fast-growing demographic warranting greater inclusion in developmental research. We address several likely barriers to inclusion related to the conceptualization and measurement of biracial/multiracial/multiethnic status and offer recommendations for including Multiracial youth that are informed by the research questions of interest. With a diverse sample of 610 early adolescents (11% Multiracial), we explore Multiracial youths’ racial/ethnic homophily in their best friendship. Multiracial youth were less likely to perceive a racial/ethnic match and less likely to objectively match (i.e., their best friend also self-reported being multiracial) compared to their monoracial counterparts. Multiracial youth perceived a racial/ethnic match with their best friend when they and their best friend both reported the exact same monoracial backgrounds. They were less likely to perceive a match when there was only a partial (i.e., one background overlapped) or no objective match. Practical recommendations are provided for future research.

Interracial Comparisons of Intimate Partner Violence Among Military Perpetrators.

Interracial violence is a high-profile issue in the United States; however, there is little empirical research on interracial intimate partner violence (IPV). Interracial relationships are becoming more common. However, interracial couples continue to face stressors (e.g., discrimination) that likely impact the relationship (e.g., IPV) than their monoracial counterparts. Research indicates that military populations more likely oppose interracial marriages than nonmilitary counterparts. Yet, no study to date has investigated IPV within military monoracial and interracial couples. To understand the intersecting effects of race/ethnicity among military couples, this study investigates male perpetrated IPV in interracial and monoracial relationships. Using structural equation modeling, this study sample contains information about 449 male veterans from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (1994-2008): Waves I and IV. Findings indicate that (a) White and Black veterans are more violent in monoracial relationships, meanwhile, Latino veterans have a higher IPV prevalence in interracial relationships; (b) Black and White veterans were more likely to use alcohol and other drugs (AOD) after IPV perpetration in interracial relationships, in contrast to Latino veterans' post IPV perpetrations AOD use in monoracial relationships; (c) veteran mental health status was affected after perpetration of IPV, similar to the effects experienced after combat. In an attempt to address the lack of research on the characteristics associated with interracial violence this study addresses the following questions: (a) Are veterans in interracial families more likely to commit IPV and use of alcohol and other drugs (AOD) than in monoracial families? (b) Among the military samples, is AOD a facilitator for IPV?

Multiracial Children's Experiences of Family Instability

AbstractObjectiveThis study compares multiracial and monoracial children's exposures to family instability, attending to variation by parents' marital status at birth.BackgroundPrevious research has revealed considerable racial/ethnic heterogeneity in children's exposure to family instability. Adding to this diversity is the rising share of multiracial and multiethnic children. Yet, multiracial and multiethnic children's experiences of family instability remain largely unexamined.MethodsData come from the 2006–2019 National Survey of Family Growth, a nationally representative repeated cross‐section of U.S. adults of reproductive age. The analytic sample included 15,369 children born in first marriages and 8,612 children born in first cohabitations to non‐Hispanic White, non‐Hispanic Black, and Hispanic parents. Multistate life tables, negative binomial regression, and multinomial logistic regression were used to compare the number of family transitions and family trajectories of multiracial and monoracial children through age 12.ResultsDifferences in exposures to family instability between multiracial and monoracial children varied by parents' marital status at birth. Multiracial children born to cohabiting parents generally experienced more childhood family instability than their monoracial counterparts. Conversely, the family experiences of multiracial children born in first marriages typically fell between those of their monoracial counterparts.ConclusionGiven that higher shares of multiracial children are born within the context of cohabitation relative to their monoracial peers, these findings suggest that multiracial children may be particularly vulnerable to experiencing family instability.

Relationship Satisfaction Across the Transition to Parenthood Among Interracial Couples: An Integrative Model

As the number of multiracial families in the United States steadily increases, so does the need for more relevant conceptual frameworks that capture the structures and processes in these families. Much of the theoretical and empirical literature on the multiracial experience has focused on identity development, which has resulted in a body of scholarship heavily steeped in the individual level of analysis that neglects dyadic process‐oriented perspectives. More specifically, multiracial families experience complex life transitions just as their monoracial counterparts do, yet there is little recognition and/or understanding of their strengths and challenges, both as a family unit and as individuals within these family structures. This article proposes a conceptual model to describe and explain the relationship satisfaction of interracial couples across the transition to parenthood. We pay particular attention to the factors that are particular to interracial couples across this life transition.

Alcohol trajectories among biracial black subgroups: Testing the intermediate substance use hypothesis

ObjectiveThis study tests the intermediate biracial substance use hypothesis, which suggests that the prevalence of substance use among biracial individuals fall intermediate to their corresponding mononoracial counterparts. Using National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent and Adult Health (Add Health) data, we examine alcohol-use trajectories of a de-aggregated sample of biracial Black youth and compare them with the trajectories of the corresponding monoracial counterparts. MethodThe sample consists of 9421 adolescents and young adults who self-identified as 1 of 4 monoracial groups (i.e., Black, White, Hispanic, American Indian) or 1 of 3 biracial Black groups (i.e., Black-American Indian, Black-Hispanic, and Black-White). Study hypotheses are tested using latent growth curve modeling for first use, number of drinks, and binge drinking. ResultsWe found partial support for the intermediate substance use hypothesis, with the alcohol use rates of biracial Blacks more closely resembling the non-Black corresponding group than the monoracial Black group. Black-American Indians face particularly high risk of problematic drinking. ConclusionsThese findings demonstrate the need for additional research clarifying the onset and maintenance of alcohol use and misuse among biracial individuals and subgroups.

Race and Social Boundaries: How Multiracial Identification Matters for Intimate Relationships

While researchers have explored in detail how multiracial identification shapes symbolic boundaries (conceptual distinctions), they have paid less attention to its effects on social boundaries (how people behave). This study examines multiracial individuals’ odds of marriage and cohabitation with blacks and whites to examine whether this population challenges current race-based social boundaries via partner choice. Analyses of data from the 2008–2012 American Community Survey (ACS) show that while those who identify with more than one race are indeed more likely to have a black (white) partner than their nonblack (nonwhite) monoracial counterparts, this phenomenon is driven by the choices of multiracials with at least a part black (white) identity. For example, multivariate results show that multiracial individuals who do not report any white identity are not more likely than nonwhite monoracials to marry a white partner. Moreover, part-white multiracials are more likely than nonwhite multiracials to have a white partner. These findings largely reflect expectations derived from theories of ingroup/outgroup behavior. In sum, although multiracial individuals may contribute to challenging symbolic boundaries, the results suggest that they are not necessarily disproportionately likely to challenge race-based social boundaries via their partner choices.

Cigarette-smoking trajectories of monoracial and biracial Blacks: Testing the intermediate hypothesis.

Research on the cigarette-smoking patterns of biracial adolescents and young adults is severely limited. In this study, we tested the intermediate biracial substance-use hypothesis, which suggests that the prevalence of substance use among biracial individuals falls intermediate to their monoracial counterparts. We examined cigarette-smoking trajectories of a de-aggregated sample of biracial Black adolescents and young adults. We used longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent and Adult Health (Add Health; Harris et al., 2009). Our sample (N = 9,421) included 4 monoracial groups (Black, White, Hispanic, and American Indian [AI]) and 3 biracial groups (Black-AI, Black-Hispanic, and Black-White). Study hypotheses were tested using latent growth-curve modeling. We found some support for the intermediate biracial substance-use hypothesis for 2 of 3 biracial groups (Black-American Indian, Black-Hispanic) and 2 of 4 cigarette-use outcomes (lifetime cigarette use, number of cigarettes smoked during past month for regular smokers). The cigarette-use trajectories of biracial Blacks were significantly different from only 1 corresponding monoracial group. Black-AIs and Black Hispanics engage in lifetime cigarette use at comparable rates to monoracial Blacks. Black-Hispanic regular smokers' rate of cigarette smoking is comparable to the higher rates of Hispanics and not to the lower rates of Blacks. Knowledge of the origins, developmental course, and consequences of tobacco use among the biracial population may lead to effective intervention programs and policies for this group. (PsycINFO Database Record

Shifting racial hierarchies: An analysis of residential segregation among multi-racial and mono-racial groups in the United States

Multi-racial (mixed-race) people constitute a growing percentage of the United States (US) population. The study reported in this paper used residential segregation measures as a proxy for social distance, to examine whether segregation levels of multi-racial groups differ from those of mono-racial groups in the US in 2010. First, we find that all multi-racial groups considered in the study experience lower levels of segregation at county level than their mono-racial counterparts. However, black-whites and Hispanic-whites experience higher levels of segregation than other multi-racial groups. Second, we find region and minority composition of counties are associated significantly with segregation levels for multi-racial groups, but relative income is not.

Abstract C83: Health status and chronic conditions of biracial Asians in California 2001-2009

Abstract Intro: In 2000, 6.8 million individuals identified with two or more races. This number increased to over 9 million by 2010, representing a 30% increase within a span of 10 years. The rapid growth of racial and ethnic minority populations in the US will transform the cultural milieu and engender shifts in health, economic, social, and political landscapes. These shifts necessitate the examination of health profiles of these emerging populations to determine whether they experience disparate health behaviors or outcomes in comparison to their monoracial counterparts. The focus of the present study was to examine health outcomes and chronic conditions for the biracial Asian population in California. We hypothesized that the biracial population will display intermediate (or an “average” of) outcomes in comparison to their monoracial counterparts. Methods: This study utilized merged data from respondents (N = 238,897) to iterations of the California Health Interview Survey (CHIS) administered in 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, and 2009. After adjusting for sociodemographic variables, we ran multivariable regression models to predict health outcomes (i.e., diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, disability status, BMI, and general health) and to compare health outcomes among various racial and ethnic groups. Results: After adjusting for relevant covariates, multivariate results revealed that Whites reported better health overall than biracial Asians and other monoracial groups. For example, Whites were less likely to report having been diagnosed with diabetes, high blood pressure, and physical disability, and had higher perceived general health than biracial Asians and other monoracial individuals. We also found that biracial Asians displayed BMI ranges that were intermediate between their monoracial constituents. Conclusions: BMI is a more proximal health outcome and is more sensitive to lifestyles and behaviors. As a result, BMI may be a better indicator that biracial Asians have indeed adopted health behaviors and practices that fall between their monoracial counterparts. Future epidemiological research should examine the prevalence of more proximal health outcomes among biracial Asians and assess how it differs by developmental age. Additional studies should also examine how health behaviors among biracial Asians change over time and are associated with chronic medical conditions. Citation Format: Anh B. Nguyen, Nancy Breen, Trenette T. Clark, Richard Moser. Health status and chronic conditions of biracial Asians in California 2001-2009. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Sixth AACR Conference: The Science of Cancer Health Disparities; Dec 6–9, 2013; Atlanta, GA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2014;23(11 Suppl):Abstract nr C83. doi:10.1158/1538-7755.DISP13-C83

Multiracial Children and Poverty: Evidence From the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study of Kindergartners

Despite the recent growth in multiracial children among American children, we know very little about their well‐being. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class (N = 17,706), we evaluated the likelihood of living in poverty and near poverty for multiracial and monoracial children. Most multiracial groups have poverty or near poverty rates that are in between Whites and their respective minority monoracial counterparts, with Asian‐Whites reporting a risk of poverty equivalent to Whites and Black‐Hispanics reporting risks as high as Black and Hispanic children. Family structure and educational and occupational attainment characteristics explain some or all of the White/non‐White differentials in poverty for multiracial groups, even as monoracial children still exhibit higher risk than Whites. We consider these patterns' implications for practitioners working with low‐income families.

Bearing the burden of whiteness: the implications of racial self-identification for multiracial adolescents' school belonging and academic achievement

Previous literature on racial self-identification among multiracials demonstrates that self-identification differs by context. Moreover, among multiracial adolescents, identity, usually measured in school, is correlated with achievement. In addition, a few studies have indicated that for half-white, half-minority adolescents, school achievement falls in between the achievements of their monoracial counterparts. Using the in-school and in-home components of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), we examine the relationship between racial self-identification and school belonging and achievement. We find that among black/white and Asian/white adolescents, adolescents who self-identify as white are particularly disadvantaged in school, reporting lower grade point averages (GPA) than their multiracial counterparts. Our conclusions suggest that multiple contextual measures of self-identification better capture the relationship between racial identification and academic achievement among multiracial adolescents.

To Disclose or Not to Disclose Biracial Identity: The Effect of Biracial Disclosure on Perceiver Evaluations and Target Responses

Are biracial people perceived more negatively than their monoracial counterparts? Across two studies, we compared ratings of warmth, competence, and minority scholarship worthiness for biracial (Study 1: Black/White, Study 2: Asian/White), White, and minority (Study 1: Black, Study 2: Asian) college applicants. Findings suggest that both biracial applicants were perceived as colder and sometimes less competent than both White and corresponding minority applicants. Moreover, biracial people were also perceived as less qualified for minority scholarships than other racial minorities, which is partially explained by penalties to warmth and competence. Study 3 shows that disclosing one's biracial identity makes biracial people vulnerable to negative feedback. Taken together, these studies suggest that biracial people who disclose their biracial identity experience bias from perceivers and may be more vulnerable to that bias because of the personal nature of racial disclosure. Findings are discussed considering the stereotype content model (Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick, 2007), cultural stereotypes about biracial people (Jackman, Wagner, & Johnson, 2001), and the costs of disclosing devalued identities.

Friendship choices of multiracial adolescents: Racial homophily, blending, or amalgamation?

Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), we utilize the concepts of homophily, blending, and amalgamation to describe the possible friendship patterns of multiracials. Homophily occurs when multiracials are most likely to choose other multiracials as friends. Blending occurs when friendship patterns of multiracials are somewhere in-between those of their monoracial counterparts. Amalgamation consists of friendship patterns that are similar to one of their monoracial counterparts. All groups exhibit signs of amalgamation such that non-white multiracials resemble Blacks, and White multiracials resemble whites except for Black-White multiracials. Black-Whites, Asian-Whites, and Asian-Blacks also exhibit signs of blending, while only Native American multiracials show signs of homophily. Multiracials have different experiences depending on their specific racial composition, and while they seem to bridge the distance between racial groups, their friendship patterns also fall along Black and White lines.

Under and Beyond Constraints: Resource Allocation to Young Children from Biracial Families

Using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, the authors examine the extent to which biracial families differ from monoracial families in their transmission of resources to young children. In these analyses, the authors demonstrate the utility of distinguishing not only between white‐biracial and nonwhite‐biracial families and but also between even more refined measures of biracial families (e.g., white father/Asian mother). The authors find that, in most cases, biracial families provide comparable or greater economic and cultural resources to their children than do their monoracial counterparts, but offer fewer advantages in interactional/social resources. This overall pattern remains even after sociodemographic factors are taken into consideration. Exceptions to this pattern also are identified and explored. Implications for our understanding of racial stratification, interracial relations, and the role of both human agency and constraints on intergenerational transmission of resources are discussed.

Behavioral Health in Multiracial Adolescents: The Role of Hispanic/Latino Ethnicity

The purpose of the present study was twofold: (1) to determine whether adolescents who self-identify as multiracial have more adverse health behaviors than their monoracial counterparts, and (2) to examine whether the health behaviors of adolescents who are multiracial and Hispanic are more similar to those who identify as monoracial Hispanic or those who are multiracial and non-Hispanic. Secondary analyses of data in a subsample from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey of 3,704 (27.2%) adolescents who identified as Hispanic/Latino only, multiracial Hispanic, or multiracial non-Hispanic were conducted. Regression analyses were conducted using SUDAAN for the complex sampling to test for differences in health behaviors (i.e., smoking, exercise, substance abuse, and suicide risk) among the three ethnicity/race groups. Each health behavior scale yielded significant between-group differences according to ethnic/racial identity: Hispanic/Latino adolescents scored significantly lower than both multiracial groups on the measure of cigarette smoking, lower than multiracial Hispanic adolescents on the substance abuse scale, and lower than multiracial non-Hispanic adolescents on the measure of exercise. The multiracial Hispanic group was also at marginally increased risk for suicide compared to the Hispanic/Latino group. The results support the hypothesis that multiracial Hispanic adolescents have more behavioral health problems than monoracial Hispanic adolescents. The second hypothesis--that multiracial Hispanic adolescents are more similar to multiracial non-Hispanic adolescents--was also supported. The implications of these findings for the classification of Hispanic adolescents in terms of ethnicity and race in relation to health behaviors are discussed.