Mongolian Society Research Articles

COMMUNIST PARTY’S AND POLITICS’ ELITES IN THE TRANSFORMATION OF MONGOLIAN SOCIETY IN THE 1920s TO 30s

This study shows the multifactorial process of formation of new communist and political elite in Mongolia in the 1920s and 30s during the hardest period of the struggle for sovereignty and the formation of true Mongolian state. The author focuses on the analysis of domestic political and foreign policy factors influencing the development of the basic principles and mechanisms of the formation of the Mongolian Communist Party’s and politics’ elite and its participation in the process of transformation of traditional Mongolian society based on the socialist modernisation model. The characteristics of the process of formation of the Mongolian communist and political elite from the very first revolutionary circles of Mongolia People’s Party to the fundamental measures of the country’s socialist reorganisation are given. Particular attention is paid to the formation of a “tactical alliance” at the initial stage of the revolutionary process, the internal political struggle in the ranks of the Mongolian communist and political elite in carrying out fundamental social changes and the transformation of Mongolian society in the period of the 1920s-40s. On the basis of archival material and taking into account the achievements of modern Russian and foreign historiography, problematic and key issues of Russian historiography of the process of formation of the political elite and the transformation of the socialist model of the socialist model in Mongolia in the 1920s-30s are considered. The author concluded that the period of the 1920s and 30s, the struggle between old and new social forces, the formation of a new communist and political elite unfolded against a very unique background characterised, on the one hand, by the desire for national unity, the revival of Mongolian statehood, and on the other hand, by the choice of the optimal model of social development in those historical conditions.

Лувсанданзанжалцан (1639–1704) и его роль в истории буддизма в Монголии

Introduction. The article examines the biography of the first Lamyn-gegen Luvsandanzanzhaltsan and his activities in spreading Buddhism in Khalkha-Mongolia in the 17th century. As it is known, biographies of Mongolian lamas are valuable sources not only on the history of Buddhism, but also on general history of Mongolia, which contain information about certain events that have not been preserved in other historical chronicles or documents. The Mongolian lamas Ündür-gegen (1635–1723), Luvsandanzanzhaltsan (1639–1704) and Zaya-pandita Luvsanprinlai (1642–1715) played an important role in the successful spread of Buddhism in Khalkha Mongolia. If the life and activities of Ündür-gegen and Zaya pandita, their role in the history are well studied, the same cannot be said about Luvsandanzanzhaltsan, known as Lamyn-gegen. The purpose of this article is to fill in the gaps about the initial stage of the spread of Buddhism among the Khalkha-Mongolian principalities and about Luvsandanzanzhaltsan, one of the key figures in this process. Materials and methods. Mongolian-language translations of his biography written in Tibetan by Luvsanprinlai, published archival documents on the history of Mongolian monasteries and historical chronicles, publications by D. Dashbadrakh, R. Byamba, D. Ganzorig, S. Soninbayar, S.-I. Yundenbat, containing information on the subject, have been the main sources for the article. Their analyses became the basis for estimating his contribution to the spread of Buddhism and his role in the history of Mongolia in the second half of the 17th century. Within the framework of the study, a set of general scientific and special historical methods was used, which allowed us to consider the role of Lamyn-gegen in connection with the history of Mongolian society of the period under consideration. Results. The biography of Lamyn-gegen, the stages of his studying and becoming a major religious figure are considered. His role in the preparation of lamas and the construction of monasteries is described and brief information about his subsequent reincarnations is given. Attention is paid to the economic basis of the existence of his monasteries and the formation of the institute of shabinars. Conclusions. The results of the study allow us to conclude that Lamyn-gegen has made a great contribution into the spread of Buddhism in Mongolia, alongside with distributing Buddhist teaching and achievements of the centuries-old experience of medieval scientific knowledge of the East. He was the first Mongolian astrologer and emchi-lama, doctor, who has laid the foundation for the study of the heritage of Indo-Tibetan medicine and the creation of its Mongolian branch. He was also a translator of many treatises from Tibetan into Mongolian and a prominent scholar, whose works have been published in 4 volumes.

The factor of labor relations in the politics of modern societies: the experience of Mongolia and Kazakhstan

The article attempts to summarize the socio-philosophical analysis of the factors influencing the development of labor relations (including labor emigration) in Mongolia and the Republic of Kazakhstan. The focus of the research is on the philosophical and political aspects of labor relations. In a comparative aspect, trends and approaches to the regulation of labor relations are considered in the focus of regional cooperation. Particular attention is paid in the article to the study of topical political and philosophical problems of labor activity (work and freedom, the objectives and uses of labor, the use of working time as the foundation of labor, etc.), trends and problems in the field of regulation of labor relations are shown. The article focuses on the special position of Mongolia in the system of international relations, highlights the determinants of the foreign policy of this country. An analysis of the social consequences of the adoption and implementation of the concept of the “third neighbor” in the policy of the Mongolian and Kazakhstani societies at the present stage of development has been carried out. The conclusion is made about the specifics of the social situation of the Mongolian society in a state of demographic transition, which is characterized by a young age structure of the population, focused on the export of labor resources, labor migration. The article emphasizes the fundamental difference between the Kazakh society as a society in which there is no active migratory donation, in contrast to the Mongolian society. The authors showed the importance of labor migration in the socio-economic development of both countries in the context of this opposition. According to the authors, both countries have developed an approach to understanding labor relations as a factor in the sustainable development of society andthe state.

세계화 시대 한국 내몽골고학력자 취업이민에 대한 사례 연구

In recent years, highly educated people have been immigrating depending on the demand and supply of the labor markets in their countries of origin and countries of destination under the influence of globalization. Brain drain and brain gain lead to the building of a network for academic exchange between the country of origin and the receiving country influencing beyond the limit within the boundary of each country. To test this hypothesis, in-depth interviews were conducted in this study with highly educated Mongolians who immigrated to South Korea. The themes from a case study were analyzed. First, highly educated Mongolians came to South Korea as they received South Korea-Mongolia government scholarships. They quit their job in Mongolia to study abroad, or decided to study abroad after graduating a high school. Their studying-abroad tends to be extended to employment-based immigration in South Korea. Since Mongolian society has barely utilized the capabilities of highly educated people who had studied abroad, the rate of brain drain is high. This is due to the lack of job opportunity for this population, the low demand of highly skilled science and technology workforce, and the low recognition of the economic value of knowledge workers. Second, South Korean society is actively taking advantage of brain gain by attracting international students and allowing employment-based immigration for these students to complement the decreasing South Korean highly educated population. In South Korea, Mongolian college graduates and postgraduate degree holders work in universities for research or administration, start a business based on their expertise, or look for a job. Third, beyond pursuing employment in South Korea, Mongolian college graduates and postgraduate degree holders in South Korea lead the academic exchange between South Korea and Mongolia by contributing to leading research collaborations, and the building and activation of academic network through maintaining cultural and social exchange. From a transnational perspective, this study identified that the brain drain of Mongolia has led to the building and activation of a new academic network between South Korea and Mongolia, beyond the brain gain in South Korea.

ЛГБТK: ХҮЙСИЙН БОЛОН БЭЛГИЙН ЧИГ БАРИМЖААНЫ АСУУДАЛ ФИЛОСОФИ, ЁС ЗҮЙН ЭРГЭЦҮҮЛЭЛД ХҮРГЭХ НЬ

This article discusses the significance of the LGBTQ issue, which encompasses human rights, ethics, society, and existence. Being a sexual minority, this group has historically faced challenges, and their perceptionthroughout history has been influenced by religious and some othetr perspectives. It’simportant to note that within the scope of this evaluation, we neither seek to endorse nor criticize any specific standpoint. However, it is true that in today’s Mongolian society, which upholds the principles of a humane civil democratic society, there is greater openness to the topic of sexual orientation. Nevertheless, this article aims to emphasize the necessity of considering this issue from multiple perspectives and providing a theoretical explanation, as there exist diverseopinions within the public discourse

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE MONGOLS

Objectives: The study aims to shed light on the social life of the Mongols, and to show through it the components of the Mongolian society of the ruling class, the public class, the merchants class, craftsmen, and the slave class, and the laws that linked these components to the customs and traditions that they practiced by conveying an image of their character, morals, and their food and drink habits, their homes, their clothes, the traditions, holidays and occasions they adhered to despite the lack of sources that talk about the social aspect in general, most of the writings of contemporary historians were related to the military and political aspects and neglected the other aspects, and the researchers also dealt with the status of women in Mongol society, which had an influential role And big on events.
 Methodology: In this study, it is relied on all historical sources, Arabic, Persian, and English, and focused on the descriptive and analytical side of the historical narratives in order to make a comparison between them and show the contradiction and similarities in them. The study focused on four axes as comprehensive of the social life of the Mongols. The third axis showed customs, traditions and holidays, and the fourth axis clarified women in the Mongolian society.
 Conclusions: The nature of the social life that the Mongols lived had a great influence on the brutality and cruelty with which they were described. The life of misery, travel and conquest in search of sources of livelihood is sufficient reason to make them always thirsty for blood in order to reach their goal, which is to secure a comfortable life for them, and therefore the social environment was the most influential reason for building the characteristics and personality of the Mongolian individual.

The cat in Mongolian society: a good, bad and ugly animal

ABSTRACT In Mongolia the cat is viewed ambiguously. It is seen either as a good, a bad or an ugly creature, or as a mix of all these. This ambiguity stems from the cat’s function as a mirror of Mongolian society, where the transition to socialism and post-socialism was traumatic, interrupting the cosmological order. This paper explains these diverse images by analysing old legends and modern folk stories about felines.

The People’s Revolution of 1921 as a Phenomenon of the Social Transformation of Mongolian Society

The article deals with the phenomenon of the Mongolian People’s Revolution of 1921 and its significance for the social transformations of the Mongolian society. The revolution had unique features that reflected historical features, and, at the same time, had properties similar to other types of sociocultural changes. The people’s revolution of 1921 at the initial stage of its development belonged to the world of ideas, represented a phenomenon that was more speculative, but under the influence of internal and external factors, it acquired empirical features. In the course of deepening social transformations, it gradually turned into a phenomenon and began to represent an exceptional phenomenon, especially in terms of eliminating the feudal system and gaining international recognition. We see the reflection of all these ideas in the writings of many Mongolian and Soviet historians. His Works Academician Bazaryn Shirendyb, Doctor of Historical Scienc, on the topic of revolution are recognized as fundamental. The article reflects the main points of the revolutionary process, their characteristics and significance for the Mongolian people. The tasks of the revolution are touched upon, the democratic transformations of the People’s Government during the period of the formation of people’s power and its role in strengthening the national independence of the country are disclosed in detail. The author of the article used general scientific (analysis, information collection, synthesis, extrapolation) and special methods (comparative, typological, periodization method). Moreover, to understand the sequence of revolutionary events, the historical-genetic method was used based on the principles of historicism, consistency and reliance on historical sources. The theme of the revolution remains relevant and attracts new researchers. We study the historical path followed by Mongolia in the XX century as an exceptional phenomenon.

Mongol'skaya tradicionnaya vyshivka i ee primenenie v sovremennoj odezhde

Mongolian embroidery is an important part of traditional Chinese culture, with a long history and a pivotal role in the life of Mongolian society. This article examines Mongolian traditional embroidery and its application in modern clothing through literature analysis and examples of modern clothing design.

Монголын нийгэм дэх зүүн азийн соёлын нөлөө

The issue of foreign cultural influence in Mongolian society has been recognized for some time. However, its impact on Mongolian social system is a more recent field of study. This paper focused on the emerging East Asian regional cultural powers, like China, Hong Kong, South Korea and Japan. Mongolia is a much open country, therefore it could be much easily influenced by soft powers from the countries with impressive economic development. The author tries to define the features of the influence, describes the rise of cultural industry, cultural interactions, especially with in East Asian cultural wave.

ОЛНОО ӨРГӨГДСӨН МОНГОЛ УЛСЫН ЭДИЙН ЗАСГИЙН ТУСГААР ТОГТНОЛЫН АСУУДАЛД

When in the 29th of December of 1911 the Mongols established own state for strengthening it and liberation own territory from the Manchu-Chinese troops unite the rest of Mongolia under the Mongol rule need a huge amount of financial sources. So make the fund rising in the Mongolian ground was impossible. For that purpose the Mongols seek the financial aid from Russia and heavily talk how the Mongols should have own financial sources and how payback the Russian loan and how the Mongols should develop their financial ability. All those internal policy moods in the Mongolian society described in this article using the historical sources of that time.

Constructing ‘corrupted village wives and urban men’ through multilingual performances

AbstractThis article analyzes the sociolinguistic construction of two gendered figures in multilingual performances, namely a category of young Mongol wives in rural societies who challenge patriarchal social order, and a group of young urban Mongol men whose dream is to be rich and indulge themselves in luxury. By drawing on the analytical framework of stance and stylization, the study analyzes how the performers’ multivalent stance-taking towards constructed personas and specific social-moral orders are communicated through their skillful stylization of multilingual resources in Inner Mongolia. It also points out that language stylization and stance-taking, taking place in reference to local cultural values and linguistic ideologies, are anchored in continually evolving ethnic, gender, and class relationships in a changing, minoritized Mongolian society in the context of Chinese modernization and capitalist marketization. (Stance-taking, language stylization, gendered discourses, Mongols, multilingualism)*

Image of the Jungar Galdan-Boshoktu-Khan in the Novel “An Eagle Soaring in the Sky” by Mongolian Writer B. Dogmid

The article, based on the historical novel "An Eagle Soaring in the Sky" (2021) by the modern Mongolian writer Balzhirin Dogmid (1945), examines the life and work of the Oirat-Mongolian Galdan-Boshoktu-khan (1644-1697), a major political figure of the 17th century, the ruler of Dzungar Khanate. The modern need to realize, to better comprehend the scale of the political and international events of the 17th century in Central and East Asia, which are based on the relationship between Dzungaria, Qing China, Tibet and disparate Mongolian principalities, which led to total dependence on the Manchu Qing dynasty, excites many creative minds in Mongolia today . B. Dogmid, referring in his novel to one of the brightest charismatic rulers of Mongolia in the second half of the 17th century, tells about the main directions of the “Mongolian policy” of Galdan Boshoktu Khan, focusing on the personal human qualities of his hero. The desire of Galdan-Boshoktu to unite the Mongols under the auspices of the Oirats was based on the policy of the Oirat aristocrats, pursued by them since the fall of the Yuan Empire (1368) and the formation of the Oirat Union (Durvan Oirat, XV-XVI centuries). Interest in history, which rapidly increased by the nineties of the XX century in Mongolian society, is not weakening even today. Moreover, the nature of this interest is changing, and the genre of the historical novel itself, which tells about one of the difficult periods of Mongolian history, about the life and work of an outstanding personality like Galdan-Boshoktu-Khan in evolutionary formation, in dynamics, in situations, as a rule, confusing and conflict relations with others (with Southern Mongolia, Eastern Turkestan, Qing China, Tibet, Russia) also change accordingly.

Ethnolinguistic Nominations of Mythological Figures (demonologems) in the Kalmyk Language

Demonology ideas that date from the oldest and most stable folklore and mythological traditions are emphasized in multiple ethnic cultures. An early form of religion directly coupled with mythology is represented by the black faith of the Mongolian and, more broadly, Central Asians, which evolved from many different beliefs bequeathed by ancestors (belief in the forces of space and nature, in the souls of dead ancestors, totemic ancestors, etc.). It made people perceive the world around as a set of elements dynamically influencing their lives where each element has its own origin, its own spirit somewhat independent, which they worship and appease by means of sacrifice, incantation and primordial magic. Mythologization as a certain tendency of consciousness was preserved throughout all historical stages shaping the ethnic Mongolian society, including the Kalmyks. The paper discusses the naming of mythological characters (demonologems or demonims), defines the groups of nominations for „lower mythology‟ characters with a surreal denotation that does not exist in real life. The study aims to feature the ethnolinguistic functioning of demonology glossary in the Kalmyk language and to identify its significance in modern linguistic consciousness. The glossary is basically denoted through ethnocultural stereotypical ideas about demonology born in the minds of native speakers. The most productive are the nominative groups of mythical creatures determined by their habitat, by deleterious effects that malevolent entities can have, etc. Evaluative nominations are based on demonologemes that have a negative connotation fixed in the language.

The image of Genghis Khan in Mongolia’s national ideology and historical policy

The article analyzes the image of Genghis Khan in the national ideology and historical policy of Mongolia. The study of this topic is relevant today in the context of the ongoing major geopolitical changes. In this context, it is important to note the various methods and technologies used to form the civic consciousness and national unity of Mongolians. One of the key approaches is the widespread integration of the extra-historical image of Genghis Khan into various spheres of Mongolian society. However, here it is important to distinguish between the real historical personality of Genghis Khan and the constructed image actively promoted by the contemporary leadership of Mongolia. Critical analysis of these differences allows us to better understand the nuances of collective identity formation. This issue is studied within the framework of a separate direction as Mongolology, created by the joint efforts of Russian, French, German, and British researchers of the nomadic Mongolian civilization, its original culture, and which in the last decade has become widespread in Mongolia itself. The study of the work of the last three Mongolian presidents on the image of Genghis Khan is of the greatest interest, since they personify modern Mongolia, and the period of their work covers both the heyday of democracy in the country and its contemporary crisis. It is concluded that the current president will continue to refer the Mongolian people to Genghis Khan, but no longer as a wise builder of the state, but as its inflexible and alternative ruler who ruled until his death. As practice suggests, it is big ideas that come to the aid of the ruling regime when its economic abilities are exhausted and there is nothing to present to the electorate. Thus, in modern Mongolia, the memorial canon is formed as one of the results of the historical policy pursued by the elites, in the framework of which the concept of «statehood», correlated with the category of «Mongolianness», occupies a special place.

Православная миссия в современной Монголии в контексте религиозной ситуации

Introduction. The paper introduces results of a research project aimed at investigating missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church across Inner Asia. Goals. The study seeks to analyze institutional religious structures of Mongolian society for distinguishing features of collective consciousness, the Orthodox Christian Mission be viewed as both an external vehicle of change and a recipient of influence. Materials and methods. When it comes to collect and explore primary sociological data, the article focuses on interviews with Orthodox Christian priests, monks, and laymen, since the method proves instrumental in analyzing events pertaining to the development of Orthodox Christian communities, construction of temples, and peculiarities inherent to everyday life of parishes — on the basis of eyewitness accounts and participant opinions. The method yields data on specificities of government-church relations throughout the process of legalizing Orthodox Christian parishes, makes it possible to assess actual levels of interaction between the clergy and Russian citizens, as well as representatives of other Asian countries during the whole period investigated. Conclusions. Insights into official statistical reports and media publications have supplemented the results of our sociological survey to show Orthodox Christianity is perceived as part of the Russian cultural model. The complicated structure of Mongolia’s Orthodox Christian community attests to that missionaries do face somewhat challenging conditions in their endeavors. Christianity is a noticeable and emerging institution in contemporary Mongolia, but its adherents are still a minority, the Orthodox Christians being a minority in minority.

Russian Language in Everyday Discourse of Mongols (Data from an Expert Survey)

The results of a study conducted in 2021 and devoted to the analysis of the current position of the Russian language in Mongolian society is presented in the article. The relevance of the study is due to the need to analyze the changes taking place in the minds of the Mongols regarding the Russian language, and to search for further prospects for its functioning in Mongolia. The impossibility of conducting a mass questionnaire survey due to the pandemic of a new coronavirus infection led to the choice of an expert survey as the main research method. The factors leading to the weakening of the Russian language positions, which include, first of all, the change in Mongolia’s foreign policy priorities, the search for new partners, the decrease in Russia’s influence, and the processes of globalization are considered in the article. It was revealed that, despite the narrowing of the spheres of functioning of the Russian in Mongolia, its socio-cultural potential in the Mongolian society has not been exhausted. The factors restraining the growth of negative trends are highlighted, namely the presence of the Russian in the educational sphere, the presence of specialists with Soviet and Russian education, a common historical memory based on friendship and trust. Analysis of the results of the study shows that the further development of cooperation between Russia and Mongolia in all spheres of public life, the strengthening of political union, economic cooperation and cultural interaction can allow the Russian language to become one of the leading foreign languages in modern Mongolian society.

Этапы языковой политики в Монгольской Народной Республике

Introduction. The 20th century reform of Mongolian writing shaped the basis for wide transformations in the country’s culture, science, and education. It is noteworthy that the language policy in the Mongolian People’s Republic was not only reduced to the Cyrillic reform of 1941. Goals. The article attempts a variety of insights into multiple directions of language policy in the Mongolian Peo\ple’s Republic. The work distinguishes four main stages of the latter’s implementation, and also compares those to similar processes in the USSR. Materials and methods. The paper analyzes Russian and Mongolian language sources, primarily laws and regulations of the USSR and the Mongolian People’s Republic, special attention be paid to works titled ‘The Revolution and Writing’ and ‘Public Education, Culture, Arts, and Science [in the MPR]: Systematically Collected Decrees and Laws’. Results. It reveals the MPR’s language policy was being implemented in strict compliance with similar processes in the Soviets. And it was largely the language policy that served a key to the successful abolition of illiteracy nationwide, modernization of Mongolian society, and spread of Soviet and European cultures. However, certain aspects and consequences of the language policy — primarily the intensified ‘Russification’ — would give rise to rejection and criticism among the Mongolian intelligentsia. Conclusions. Subsequently, this very reaction led to a dramatic rethink of the language policy in the 1990s, which attests to the significance of analyzing the MPR’s policy in this realm for better understanding of the situation in contemporary Mongolia.

Религиозные процессы на территории Монголии (по результатам социологического исследования)

The article presents the results of a sociological study conducted by the Russian-Mongolian project in 2020 on the territory of Mongolia. In the course of the study, an attempt was made to assess the religious situation on the territory of Mongolia and to identify the degree of involvement of the country's residents in religious life, as well as their perception of state confessional policy. The sample of the study is 362 people. At the same time, the number of respondents included a significant number of respondents who came to study or work from different parts of the country. 73% of respondents believe that a person needs to be a believer. However, 46% of respondents visit places of worship very rarely, and 22% do not observe any religious rites at all. This fact indicates a rather weak involvement of respondents in religious life, including the Buddhist sangha. Research has shown that Buddhism is the predominant denomination in Mongolia, which is considered as part of the national culture of the Mongolian people. The State is taking measures to support the Buddhist institute as an element of national identity. These measures lead to the popularization of Buddhism among the population of Mongolia. According to respondents, an important role in building interfaith dialogue should be played by the state, whose task is to control the activities of religious organizations. It is established that stereotypes associated with religious traditions prevail in Mongolian society. Thus, the majority of respondents associate Islam with manifestations of extremism. At the same time, it should be noted that Mongolia is a country with a fairly low level of extremist worldview. The assessment of the development of the interfaith situation in Mongolia requires further observation. A fairly large percentage of respondents noted that the interfaith situation in Mongolia cannot be considered absolutely stable. The strengthening of the Buddhist Sangha in the political and cultural life of the country requires an assessment of its role in building interfaith relations in the region.

Expeditionary Activity of Aleksey Pozdneev (1851—1920) with the Reference to the History of the Development of Scientific Mongolian Studies in Russia

The article deals with the expeditionary work of an outstanding Russian specialist in Mongolian studies Aleksey Matveyevich Pozdneev. He can be characterized by a wide range of work, from collecting field materials, compilation of manuscripts in oriental languages and objects of the religious cult of Buddhists to the creation of fundamental works in the history of the development of scientific Mongolian studies and the organization of leading centers for practical Mongolian studies in Russia, whose tasks were to train specialists in the modern East. The author of the article gives details of the scientist's expeditionary activities, revealed both from his published works and manuscripts from the archives of scientific institutions of St. Petersburg as well as shows the importance of scientific trips in general for the formation and development of scientific Mongolian studies in Russia and obtaining objective knowledge about the Mongolian peoples of Inner Asia.Multiple scientific trips to the territory of Mongolia and China, to the nomad camps of the Trans-Baikal Buryats and Kalmyks of the Astrakhan steppes of Russia contributed to the formation of A. M. Pozdneev as an authoritative scholar of Mongolian studies. Knowledge of history, culture, language and experience accumulated during a long stay among the Mongolian peoples determined the direction of his work as a state and public figure who made decisions about organization of education in national schools and conducted surveys on the situation and role of Buddhist Church. He thoroughly collected materials about life and religion, the administrative structure and social structure of Mongolian society in the late 19th — early 20th centuries which allowed to create a comprehensive picture of Mongolia at that time. The richest collections of manuscripts and woodcuts, which make up “A. M. Pozdneev Fund” of the scientific library in St. Petersburg University, contributed to the formation of new directions in Mongolian studies - linguistic, comparative-historical.