Mongol Rule Research Articles

State and law of the Chaghadai Ulus and early Timurid state as they were seen by foreign contemporaries

Research objectives: An analysis of official documents and notes of foreign contemporaries to clarify some aspects of political and legal life of the Chaghadai Ulus and early Timurid state in the 13th– beginning of 15th centuries. Materials and methods of research: The basic materials are official documents (diplomatic correspondence), travelers’ reports and notes, diaries and memoirs of travelers from different countries of Europe and Asia who visited the Chaghadai Ulus with different missions in the analyzed period as well as some official documents (diplomatic correspondence) between foreign and Mongol rulers. The methods of research are formal and historical legal research of historical documents, comparative legal analysis as well as historical approach in general. Scientific novelty: The state structure and legal relations in the Chaghadai Ulus and early Timurid state still have not been objects of special research. The author proposes to use works of foreign contemporaries as a tool to clarify some questions of political and legal life in the Chaghadaid state, finding similarities with other Chinggisid states and specific features of the region, its traditions, etc. Results of the research: The information of the analyzed historical documents, naturally, doesn’t allow one to reconstruct all aspects of political structure of Chaghadai Ulus and early Timurid state and their legal system in general, but adds valuable details to the information of other sources on history of this state – that is, historical chronicles (mainly of Timurid age) and legal monuments (khans’ yarliks and other official documents of the ulus). At that, we cannot ignore the fact that the Chaghadai Ulus before Timur was not considered as a full and authoritative member of international relations which is why contemporaries paid more attention to other Chinggisid states: The Golden Horde, Ilkhanate, Yuan Empire. However, the analysis of contemporaries’ notes could stimulate scholars to study some specific aspects of the Chaghadai Ulus’ history which were not researched before.

What Connects Mongol Rulers with the Chinese World: Imperial Edicts, a Literal Translation Style, and Spoken Chinese

This study examines the influence of Mongolian language on spoken Chinese, with a focus on the Sino-Mongolian, or Chinese language translated using the literal translation style (zhiyi-ti 直譯體) from Mongolian. Sino-Mongolian was a type of contact language, based on the Chinese vocabulary and Mongolian syntactic structure. Common linguistic elements are observed between Sino-Mongolian and the Chinese textbook No Gŏltae edited in the Koryŏ Kingdom under Mongol rule. The analysis confirms that No Gŏltae was not translated from Mongolian language but a type of spoken Chinese that was influenced and shaped by Sino-Mongolian through oral dissemination. Although Sino-Mongolian was an artificially translated language, the literal translation style may have been based on Altaic Pidgin Chinese. Hence, it was readily accepted in Northern China and naturally influenced and shaped the spoken Chinese there. It is concluded that the colloquial Chinese influenced by Sino-Mongolian, as observed in No Gŏltae, would be defined as Mongolo-Chinese, a type of Creole language.

Some Cases of Official Corruption in the Yuan dynasty Based on Chinese Sources

During the reign of the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) in China, corruption played a significant role and had a serious impact on the stability of government and social life of the conquered. Corruption was widespread at all levels of administration, including among senior officials, high-ranking officials, and local authorities. This included both Mongol rulers and representatives of the semu, who were the core elements of the officialdom. Corruption exacerbated poverty among ordinary people, as funds allocated for public needs were often redirected to benefit corrupt officials, eroding public trust in the government and the legitimacy of authority. Such a phenomenon heightened anti-government sentiment and served as the main catalyst for social unrest and uprisings. Moreover, corruption resulted in the appointment and promotion of officials not based on their qualifications but rather on personal connections and bribes. This diminished the efficiency of governance, as it did not always ensure that the most qualified individuals occupied key positions. This article offers insight into the phenomenon of corruption during the Yuan dynasty. The author explores the unprecedented level of corruption among officials and its impact on the living conditions of ordinary people in China. The article delves into a considerable number of instances of high-ranking officials’ malpractice taken from primary materials, providing a detailed analysis. This approach allows readers to gain an understanding of the social situation during Mongol rule in China and the role that corruption played in the overthrow of the Yuan dynasty. Social crisis was mostly caused by the employment of dishonest officials and the absence of the representative of the Chinese literati at the officialdom. It is worth mentioning that Kublai Khan (r. 1260–1294) managed to unite the vast expanses of China due to the assistance of Confucian scholars who served him as valuable allies in propagating Chinese values, traditions, as well vital elements of the civil administration.

Reinventing Sacred Ground Amidst Natural Disaster: The Holy Islamic Tomb in Seventeenth-Century Quanzhou

The Holy Islamic Tomb at Lingshan Mountain in Quanzhou, China, is believed to be the final resting place of two of the Prophet Muhammad’s disciples who were dispatched as missionaries in the early seventh century. While prior scholarship has centred on verifying the tradition’s chronology, this article foregrounds the role of environmental actors in the tomb site’s ascent to prominence. I argue that the holy tomb (shengmu) tradition did not emerge until the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century, so its invention should be analysed alongside concurrent climate hazards that plagued late Ming China (1368–1644). Uncommon episodes of snowfall, flooding, drought, and associated famines drove Quanzhou’s local communities towards popular religious practices. Muslim visitation practices in Quanzhou, which experienced a restrained period following the decline of Mongol rule, re-emerged into universal consciousness and became integral to the city’s spiritual landscape by aligning with Chinese allegorical narratives. Through this reinvented tradition, the Holy Islamic Tomb was characterized as a site blessed by the heavens during times of cosmic disturbances. Instead of passive assimilation, through which religious identities may be diluted, the active participation of Quanzhou Muslims in local practices empowered them to elevate and honour Islamic traditions within a predominantly non-Muslim society.

明初 對 哈密 정책에 대한 一考察

In the late period of the Yuan Dynasty, the region of Hami (哈密) was dominated by the descendants of Chagatai, the son of Chinggis Khan. Although the Ming Dynasty could not directly rule over Hami and its surrounding areas, they were able to expand their influence there following the military attack. Hami was a major thoroughfare connecting the Central Plains (中原) and the Western Regions (西域). After the Ming Dynasty successfully attacked Hami, they were overjoyed that merchants and travelers could now move freely.
 The descendants of Chagatai continued to govern this region. The Ming Dynasty established a guard post in Hami, changing the royal titles of the Mongol princes in the area from Su Wang(肅王) to Zhongshun Wang(忠順王) and Zhongyi Wang(忠義王).
 Noteworthy is the fact that the Ming Dynasty granted Mongolian women's headgear, known as 'boqtaq,' to Prince Zhongshun and Prince Zhongyi. This demonstrates, first and foremost, that the Ming Dynasty valued the former Yuan Dynasty's royal descendants who ruled Hami (哈密), a strategic gateway to the Western Regions (西域). Furthermore, the fact that the Ming did not only bestow ceremonial items upon the men of Hami but also gave special items to the women indicates the remarkably high status of women in Hami.
 Therefore, we can discern that the Ming Dynasty sought to replicate the practices of the Mongol rulers by bestowing similar honors upon the remaining Mongol imperial members who adhered to their established norms.

Reburials of Eminent Masters: The Construction of Quanzhen Daoist Lineages in North China under Mongol Rule

Abstract Burials of eminent Quanzhen masters, particularly in the form of extravagant assembly-funerals, served as the initial step in the development of a Quanzhen-style ancestor worship. This ancestor worship functioned as the bedrock of a thriving Quanzhen lineage-building movement in thirteenth-century north China. Quanzhen Daoists attributed great significance to the physical remains of a lineage's founding master and commonly conducted multiple burials of the master. Each instance of reburial presented an opportunity for specific lineage members to assert their lineage identity, as well as ownership over the founding master's spiritual and material legacy. Lineage members commonly materialized their ancestor worship through a series of memorial objects established within a hosting monastery, including tombs, statues, portraits, memorial shrines, and commemorative steles. These lineage-building efforts strengthened dynamic networks of people, monasteries, and material culture, shaping regional interactions and transformations in north China under Mongol rule.

"Pacification and control": mongol rule in Rus’ in the mid-13th century

The attacks of the Mongol commanders Nevruy and Kuremsa on the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galician-Volhynian lands were due to the struggle for power in the Mongol Empire. The power of the Great Khan in the lands controlled by the Jochids was exercised by the Darughachi and Tammachi, who represented the main institutions of the military-civilian administrative system created by the Mongols in the conquered territories. To ensure control over the western outskirts of the empire, the new Khan Möngke sought to destroy the system of subjugation of the Rus’ lands, created by Batu during the period of temporary weakening of the imperial center. The census of the population of Rus’, undertaken by the Möngke government, was supposed to ensure the centralization of power, material and human resources, necessary for further conquests both in the West and in the East. The confrontation between the Jochids and the imperial center continued for several years, until the death of Batu and his son Sartaq.

An Unbeliever Can Rule Dār al-Islām: Ḥanafī Law in the Wake of the Mongol Invasion

Abstract Prior to the Mongol invasion of Iran in the 7th/13th century, Ḥanafī jurists had adopted two definitions of Islamic lands (dār al-islām): according to a “lenient” definition attributed to Abū Ḥanīfa, an unbelieving ruler may rule over dār al-islām, and according to a “strict” definition attributed to Abū Yūsuf and al-Shaybānī, he may not. As the Mongols overran Central Asia and Iran, later Ḥanafīs began to favor the lenient definition so that lands under non-Muslim occupation might retain the status of dār al-islām as long as Muslims had security and the freedom to worship. In this article, I evaluate the assumptions about Mongol rule that underpin the lenient definition. Persian historians such as Waṣṣāf and Shabānkāraʾī report that the Mongols permitted self-rule, and Muslims were adjudicated in their own courts according to Islamic law. Local histories support the claim that Islamic life can continue under occupation by nonbelievers.

원제국 군제의 변화와 몽골적 전통의 지속

This study examined the changes caused by the expansion of the Mongol Empire to the military system, and in particular, focused on the changes of the military system after Kublai became the Great Khan. The trends and characteristics of the empire’s rule over China were reviewed in relation the military system. The Mongol Empire dominated Eurasia based on its military power, which was driven not only by the strength of individual soldiers but also the teamwork of Mingɣan-a unit of 1,000 households created based on the decimal system in the days of Genghis Khan. The empire expanded across Eurasia through military conquests led by the imperial elite force known as Keshig, Mongolian military, and Tanmachi comprised of foreign ethnic people. In the war against Jurchen during the reign of Ögedei, the Mongolian military recruited a significant number of Chinese, and categorized them as military households. From then on, the troops were divided into civil households and military households, and separately managed.
 When the Mongolian Empire’s rule over China was converted to direct control under Qa’an, the military system was reorganized to establish a superior status for Mongol in China. In the early days of the Yuan, Kublai efficiently managed Mongol, Semu and Han troops, and formed a privy council to allow more rapid response to military crises, He gave his sons and grandsons royal titles and seals, and implemented policies to deploy them along border areas. This was an effective approach that reinforced the military’s inland monitoring while allowing prompt response to possible uprisings outside military powers. The Mongol Empire stationed troops in important areas after conquering China and Central Asia, and Kublai followed this tradition by stationing troops in North China and the newly conquered the Southern China. He stationed the Mongolian military in major areas alongside the Yellow river and Shandong province in the Northern China., and the Han Army and newly submitted the southern Song army, which lies alongside Yantze River and the Huai River. As such, the small number of Mongol rulers held dominant military positions in China. A review of the aforementioned policies shows that Mongol Empire adapted the military system to the new environment in China, and at the same time, largely retained the Mongol military tradition.

ОЛНОО ӨРГӨГДСӨН МОНГОЛ УЛСЫН ЭДИЙН ЗАСГИЙН ТУСГААР ТОГТНОЛЫН АСУУДАЛД

When in the 29th of December of 1911 the Mongols established own state for strengthening it and liberation own territory from the Manchu-Chinese troops unite the rest of Mongolia under the Mongol rule need a huge amount of financial sources. So make the fund rising in the Mongolian ground was impossible. For that purpose the Mongols seek the financial aid from Russia and heavily talk how the Mongols should have own financial sources and how payback the Russian loan and how the Mongols should develop their financial ability. All those internal policy moods in the Mongolian society described in this article using the historical sources of that time.

Dash Kasan; an imperial architecture in the Mongol capital of Sultaniyya

The village of Varāy (Viyar) is located at the foot of Āq Dāgh Mountain in the southeast of Sultaniyya, Iran, and is known for its impressive rock-cut architecture called Dash Kasan. The history of Sultaniyya, which later became the Ilkhanid (Mongol rulers) capital, began with the issue of an order by Arghūn Khan (1258–1291 CE), to build a huge city enclosed by stone walls and fortifications. According to many in the field, Dash Kasan occupied a prominent place in the development of Arghūn’s architectural project; first as a stone quarry, and then as a Buddhist monastery. This building is unique in its architectural design and decoration. The site’s two large-scale dragon snakes carved out of cliffs, and the development of a vast open space by cutting the solid rock are the only examples of their kind in Iranian art and architecture. Although most of the debates on the identity of this site to date are centered on its religious function during the Mongol period, there is little architectural evidence to support this idea. Hence, the nature and the scope of earlier studies are not sufficient to substantiate the architectural discourse surrounding this monument. The aim of this paper is to study this enigmatic rock-cut complex to provide a more detailed description of the current remains. According to the results, the architectural layout of this building suggests it was originally designed as pre-Ilkhanid Mongolian ceremonial halls and reflects a Chinese, East Asian architectural influence that was evident and pervasive throughout the Mongol territories.

Following Their Own Customs


 
 
 Different interpretations exist regarding Khubilai’s 1280 edict prohibiting the Muslim method of slaughtering sheep and the practice of circumcision. By analyzing primary sources in the Chinese and Persian languages this article provides a new translation of the original text of the edict, showing that the Yuan established as a guiding principle that each subject group should follow its own customs. This article argues that the Yuan government prohibited the two Muslim practices because Mongol rulers believed that Muslims violated the guiding principle by forcing other peoples to follow the two practices. This article further argues that the Yuan court insisted on each group following its own customs because the power structure and legal system of the Mongol-Yuan Empire largely rested on differences and boundaries.
 
 

Khalkhas Tsogtu Khuntaiji: Dissonance of Assessments in Historiography

The article presents an analysis of the political and religious activities of Tsogtu Khuntaiji, one of the controversial personalities in the history of Mongolia. In the analysis of the activities of Tsogtu Khuntaiji, the historical-biographical method was applied. It made it possible to trace the origins of the political views of Tsogtu Khuntaiji. The application of the comparative historical method revealed common features and similarities in the political trends of Inner (Southern) and Khalkha (Northern) Mongolia. Analytical comparison of the main circumstances of the political struggle among the ruling stratum showed that the religious factor has become the main dividing line of the warring parties. Using the materials of written and folklore sources, the motives and reasons that prompted Tsogtu Khuntaiji to come out as a supporter of Ligden Khan are traced. The latter was the bearer of the title of Great khan and sought to revive a single Mongolian state. To resolve this issue, the nature of the relationship between Tsogto Khuntaiji and the influential princely houses of Khalkha is considered. It is shown that the general dissatisfaction of the nobility with the activities of Tsogto Khuntaiji was expressed in the person of the rulers of large Mongolian specific possessions: Sain-noyon, Tushetu-khan and Setsen-khan. The support of Tsogto Khuntaiji for the policy of centralization of power in the hands of the Chakhar Ligden Khan led, in the conditions of the specificity of the Mongol rulers of Khalkha, to his gradual isolation, which eventually turned into expulsion from his native lands. An external factor was added to the complex tangle of interweaving of internal political conditions and religious relations ‒ the emerging state of the Manchus, which, having become the center of attraction for the Mongolian elite, was interested in the fragmentation of the Mongolian political space. It is possible that the political position of Tsogto Khuntaiji acquired its final features precisely under the influence of this circumstance.

The Complexity of Religious Traditions in Quanzhou 泉州 under Mongol Rule: An Inscription from Chunyang 純陽 Cave in Mt. Qingyuan 清源, Quanzhou

This paper discusses the complexity of the religious traditions in Quanzhou (Fujian, China), the largest international trade port under Mongol rule. The contribution of presumed Persian Muslim Pu Shougeng 蒲壽庚to the reconstruction of a Taoist-Buddhist shrine was taken as the case study. The external conditions surrounding his composite religious act (beyond private beliefs) were also observed in terms of individual goals, backgrounds, and social networks. For this purpose, the author presents the Chinese stone inscription from Quanzhou (in Fujian, China) titled “Zhong jian Qingyuan Chunyang dong ji 重建清源純陽洞記 (Record of Reconstruction of the Chunyang Cave in Qingyuan Mountain),” dated to the fourth year of Hou-Zhiyuan 後至元 (1338) during the Yuan period.

원제국 외래 香藥과 카안의 賞賜 ― 南海海上 생산 香藥을 중심으로 ―

This study examined the distribution and consumption of herbal medicines in the Yuan, which was traded as the main product in international trade in the 13th and 14th centuries. This study focused on herbal medicines produced in the Southern coastal region, which ranged from Southeast Asia to India, and flowed into the Yuan. This research confirmed that rare herbal medicines produced in the southern coastal region and other countries were valued by Mongol rulers and were not only used in the herbal medicines and cuisines in the Mongol court but also served as imperial gifts.BR After annexing the Southern Song, the Mongol advanced to the ocean and began to form political relations with countries on the southeastern coast and begin international trade with the southern maritime powers. Although maritime trade did not take place due to the fierce opposition in the southern maritime reigimes, a full-fledged maritime trade system was established postwar in the late 13th century, and the trade between the Yuan and southern maritime regimes began under the leadership of various people, including soldiers, bureaucrats, and merchants. Shibo(市舶) trade began at this point, as per the Southern Song dynasty’s maritime policy. According to Zhizheng Simingzhi(『至正四明志』), herbal medicines accounted for 170 products out of a total of 220 types of products that were imported through maritime trade. These products were not only imported from Southeast Asia but also countries in West and East Asia. A portion of the herbal medicine that reached the trade port was collected as tax in accordance with the Yuan’s shibo(市舶) regulations, and the rest were circulated in the markets.BR Yuyaoyuanfang(『御藥院方』), a book on medicine publishe d in the Yuan Empire, includes the recipes and effects of medicines prepared for the Mongol Qaghans. The list of medicinal herbs that were used confirms that herbal medicines presented or imported from Southern maritime powers were used as essential ingredients. Yinshanzhengyao(『飮膳正要』), a cookbook for Mongolian rulers, also introduces foreign herbal medicines as food ingredients, which shows that foreign herbal medicines were used as spices and that the herbal medicines from the southern sea, in particular, were used in medicinal drinks consumed by the ruling class, including the Mongol Rulers. The medicines or medicinal herbs prepared in the Yuan royal court were also bestowed on Imperial family members, court ministers, and Keshigs as imperial gifts or were shared among the ruling class, with the imported herbal medicines as the main ingredients. Such findings suggest that the herbal medicines and related knowledge brought into East Asia as maritime trade became active in the 10th century were transmitted to the Yuan empire through Mongol’s maritime policy and that the herbal medicines were shared among the Mongol Imperial Members as a privilege.

Textual, Material, Visual: Exploring an Epigraphic Approach to the History of Imperial China

AbstractIn this article, I advance a recent epigraphic approach to historical study by foregrounding steles as a medium that functions both to communicate information and project authority publicly. Scholars taking this approach have explored distinctive genres of steles to transform our understanding of north China under Mongol rule. Through a case study, I show how a set of steles installed in the fifteenth-century rural world of north China transmitted authority and power not just through the content of their inscriptions but also through other written and unwritten information they stored. I give particular attention to the ways in which the inscriptions were materialized and visualized. In doing so, I argue that emphasizing the public communication function of steles challenges us to think beyond primary sources strictly in terms of their textual value to reflect more broadly on modes of transmission and the power dynamics contained within them.

Time of Difficult Decisions: Alexander Nevsky and the Political Struggle of the Mid‑13th Century

The article is devoted to the political struggle in Rus’ and around in the middle of the 13th century, after the establishment of Mongol rule, and the role in these processes of Alexander Yaroslavich, later nicknamed Nevsky, Prince of Novgorod, then Grand Duke of Vladimir. Assessments of this role in historiography are different. Opinions are known that make Alexander Nevsky responsible for the establishment of the Horde yoke, in particular for the overthrow of his brother Andrei from the Vladimir throne, and the so-called “Nevryuy’s campaign”. The article examines the course of events based on the few surviving primary sources. It is shown that Alexander, recognizing his dependence on the Horde forcedly and later than Andrei, was not the initiator of inter-princes’ rivalry, and made practically no real contribution to the formation of the Horde administration of North-Eastern Russia.

On the Byzantine-Mongol Marriages

The article focuses on the rapprochement between Byzantium and the Mongols from the 1250s which resulted in marriage alliances between Mongol Khans and Byzantine despoinas (princesses). The key issue is a clash of two different approaches. The Byzantine one was focused on the exclusive status of Byzantium as Christian Roman Empire, whose status was unrivalled and whose sovereigns seldom allowed marriages of Byzantine ladies to the foreign rulers, especially if the latter were heathen or Muslim. The Mongol view considered the Mongol state as the only one destined to dominate over other states. Here, the marriages between Mongol rulers and foreign brides have been suggested as one of vital elements of such domination. The compromise between two views seemed to have been made by the Byzantines: while the Byzantine church law refused to recognize interconfessional marriages, the Byzantines began to see these marriages as a Christian mission of sorts as the Greek brides and wives could have served as agents for spreading Greek Orthodox Christianity. Given the fact that some Khans had already converted to Islam prior to the marriage, these were also the first marriages between the Byzantine Imperial dynasty of the Palaiologoi and the Muslim rulers. It seems that special tolerance of the Mongols towards Christianity (even if they were Muslims) played a key role in the change of the principles of the Byzantine marriage policy: it henceforth became possible for the Emperor’s illegitimate daughter to marry a Muslim ruler. This policy affected the marriages of the later period of the fourteenth and fifteenth century between the imperial dynasties of the Palaiologoi and Grand Komnenoi, on the one hand, and the neighboring Turkish rulers, including the Ottomans, on the other.

Some problems of trade relations during the Mongol rule in China

In the article, the author establishes to what extent the nature of China’s foreign trade underwent changes during the Mongolian Yuan dynasty. The author’s task is to explain some aspects of the continu- ity of trade relations when power in China passes from the Southern Song Empire to the Yuan Empire, China’s entry into the Eurasian Mongolian Empire. The author conducted a comparative analysis of ma- terials on trade in China in various sources, which reveal the nature of commercial transactions, imports and exports of China in the Yuan period compared to the period when the Southern Song Dynasty ruled. The works considered in the article are devoted to the history of trade of the XIII century, commodity exchange and trends in the economic development of the region, are valuable sources of the period from the fall of the Song Dynasty to the coming to power of the founder of the Yuan Dynasty. A comparative analysis of the works revealed similarities in the characteristics of a number of phenomena and process- es, which confirms the accuracy of the reports of medieval authors. As a result of the research, the author comes to the conclusion that the coming to power of the Yuan dynasty has had a positive impact on the trade situation in the region, the position of merchants has become stronger compared to the previous period, external relations have remained and developed, the developed system of collecting duties has shown a high level of organization of the bureaucratic apparatus, the range of imported and exported goods has significantly expanded. Key words: trade, Yuan empire, Mongol empire, foreign trade, price evolution.

Alans in Mongol Service in First Third of 13th Century

The author considers actual and, despite the presence of a number of written medieval sources and a wide consideration of the topic in scientific literature, discussion questions about the Alans who were in the service of the Mongol Kaans and emperors of the Yuan dynasty, and about the time of the first appearance of the Alans in the Mongol service. The novelty of this study lies in the fact that the question of establishing the time of the first appearance of the Alans in the service of the Mongols is solved in it through determining the time of the introduction of Mongol rule in the territory of the Ciscaucasia. Particular attention is paid to the analysis and correlation of information from the main medieval written sources about this event: Mongolian, Persian, Arab and Khorezm. The result of the study was the conclusion that the raid of the Mongol commanders Jebe and Subeday in the Ciscaucasia did not have any political consequences for Alania, and the information from written sources reporting that the Alans became part of the Jochi ulus in 1224 is either a form of a declaration about the intentions of the Mongol house that ruled at that time, or late chronicle inserts reflecting the state of affairs that developed after the Western campaign of the Mongols.