Mon State Research Articles

Successful elimination of falciparum malaria following the introduction of community-based health workers in Eastern Myanmar: A retrospective analysis.

Myanmar has a large majority of all malaria in the Greater Mekong Subregion. In the past decade, substantial progress was made in malaria control. The residual burden of malaria is in remote areas where currently recommended malaria elimination approaches are generally not feasible. In such hard-to-reach communities in Mon state, East Myanmar, Medical Action Myanmar introduced community health workers (CHWs) to deliver early diagnosis and treatment for malaria. We conducted a retrospective analysis to assess the impact of this intervention. This retrospective analysis involved data collected routinely from a CHW programme in Mon state conducted between 2011 and 2018. A network of 172 CHWs serving a population of 236,340 was deployed. These CHWs carried out 260,201 malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) to investigate patients with acute febrile illness. The median blood examination rate was 1.33%; interquartile range (IQR) (0.38 to 3.48%); 95% CI [1.28%, 1.36%] per month. The changes in malaria incidence and prevalence in patients presenting with fever were assessed using negative binomial regression mixed effects models fitted to the observed data. The incidence of Plasmodium falciparum malaria (including mixed infections) declined by 70%; 95% CI [65%, 75%]; p < 0.001 for each year of CHW operation. The incidence of P. vivax malaria declined by 56%; 95% CI [50%, 62%]; p < 0.001 per year. Malaria RDT positivity rates for P. falciparum and P. vivax declined by 69%; 95% CI [62%, 75%]; p < 0.001 and 53%; 95% CI [47%, 59%]; p < 0.001 per year, respectively. Between 2017 and 2018, only 1 imported P. falciparum case was detected in 54,961 RDTs. The main limitations of the study are use of retrospective data with possible unidentified confounders and uncharacterised population movement. The introduction of CHWs providing community-based malaria diagnosis and treatment and basic health care services in remote communities in Mon state was associated with a substantial reduction in malaria. Within 6 years, P. falciparum was eliminated and the incidence of P. vivax fell markedly.

Morphology and their abundance of marine hermit crabs In Zee-Phyu-Thaung coastal areas, Mon state, Myanmar

The morphological characters of marine hermit crabs from mangrove forests and rocky and sandy shores around Zee-phyu-thaung and its adjacent coastal areas were conducted from September to November 2018. Consequently, a total of 5 species in 2 genera and 1 family were identified with their distinguished characters including Clibanarius infraspinatus (Hilgendorf, 1869), Clibanarius padavensis De Man, 1888, Clibanarius merguiensis de Man, 1888, Diogenes edwardsii (De Haan, 1849) and Diogenes alias McLaughlin & Holthuis, 2001. Among them, C. padavensis (Bosc, 1802) and D. alias McLaughlin & Holthuis, 2001 were first records for Myanmar’s hermit crabs. Moreover, C. padavensis and D. edwardsii was the most abundance species in Zee-phyu-thaung.

Factors Influencing Community Participation of Youth Affairs Committee Members in Mon State

Factors Influencing Community Participation of Youth Affairs Committee Members in Mon State

Factors Influencing Community Participation of Youth Affairs Committee Members in Mon State

There are many ways for young people to get involved with their communities, but Community participation is one of the most important ways. As a way of expressing their commitment, young people form political and social action groups, devise educational initiatives tailored to their interests, and serve as community activists. This study was carried out in Myanmar prior to the military takeover in 2021. A military coup protest was organized by CEC (Chief Executive Committees). In addition, the majority of the committee members advocate for democratic values in this era. For the purpose of this study, researchers looked into which factors had the greatest impact on the participation of youth affairs committee members in their communities. Mon State was chosen as the study site because the median age of the population there is 26.7 years old. The 2014 Census revealed a range of median ages that is lower than this one. It shows that the median age of Mon state's youth affairs committee members is lower than the state's overall median age. In addition, the state of Mon was home to three major ethnicities: the Mon, the Kayan, and the Burmese. This situation demonstrates that young people have settled in Mon state with a wide range of viewpoints and ideas. The 131 members of Mon state's youth affairs committee were selected from each of the state's three levels of youth affairs committee. The data collected was analyzed using linear regression and descriptive methods. It was discovered that the community involvement of young leaders is positively influenced by social, political &amp; legal factors.

Assessment of Farmer’s Practices on the Rubber Nursery Management Using Growing Medium and Varietal Selection in Mon State

Rubber is an economically important perennial crop in Myanmar for latex production. As the rubber plantation area increases yearly, the requirement of vigorous rubber seedlings for its establishment plays a central role. The success of rubber plantations depends on some farming practices such as using different compost or other materials in the potting soil-medium, varietal selection for stock and scion in the budding process, and fertilizer application methods. The objective of this study was to assess the farmer’s practices in the establishment of rubber nurseries in mostly rubber planted areas in Myanmar. The survey interviewed 60 respondents from three townships in Mon State, namely Mudon, Kyaikmaraw, and Thanbyuzayat. The response data were analyzed through the descriptive method. This survey exposed the potentially active operators (middle age of 30 - 60 years) in rubber nursery production. Local experienced farmers usually raised the budded seedlings with 15 cm × 23 cm polyethylene bag in all study regions. Most farmers selected multi-clonal seed for stock and BPM 24 for scion according to the local market demand and high latex yield. All survey areas used both organic and inorganic fertilizers for nutrient management. Compost is a chief component of growing medium in their nursery production. However, making compost and high demand of the compost were local constraints. Therefore, this survey suggested improving the proper composting method for rubber nursery establishment.

Factors Influencing Community Participation of Youth Affairs Committee Members in Mon State Myanmar

This research explains factors (usage of social media, social factors, political &amp; factors) most effect on community participation of youth affairs committee members. This research work was conducted in Myanmar before the Military Coup. The CEC (Chief Executive Committees) members were actively participation in Military coup protest. Moreover, most of the committee members exponent the democratic values to community in this times. The study area was selected Mon State because of the media age of Mon state is 26.7 years. Moreover, there were three major ethnic group – Mon , Kayan and Burma lived in Mon state. This condition shows that youth person settled diverse opinions and thoughts in Mon state. The 131 youth affairs committee members were proportionally selected from each layer of Mon state youth affair committee for collect data. Linear regression and descriptive methods was employed to analyze collected data. It was found that social factors and political &amp; legal factors have positively significant effect on community participation of youth leaders. The policy makers of Mon state should provide the opportunities for youth to engage in community development works.

ミャンマー・モン州におけるパラゴムの生産・加工・流通構造:―その歴史・現状と将来展望―

ミャンマー・モン州におけるパラゴムの生産・加工・流通構造:―その歴史・現状と将来展望―

Salt Consumption Patterns and Iodine Nutrition Status of Pregnant Women in Coastal Region

Background: Maternal Iodine Deficiency Disorder can result in inevitable cretinism as well as miscarriages, stillbirth and low birth-weight babies. Objective: There is a need to find out contributing factors towards urinary iodine concentrations of pregnant women. Methods: Therefore, the cross-sectional, descriptive study was conducted to assess the patterns of salt utilization and iodine status of pregnant women living in coastal areas of Mon State in January and May, 2013. Result: A total of 144 pregnant women from Pa-Nga village and Kalokepi village in Thanbyuzayat township were asked by using structured questionnaires including age, parity, socioeconomic status and patterns of salt and iodine-rich foods (seaweed, fish, prawn) consumption. Casual urine samples were collected from each pregnant woman and urinary iodine concentrations were measured. Three samples each of the iodized salt and non-iodized salt from local markets were collected for determination of iodine content by the iodometric titration method. Only 83.3% of the study population consumed iodized salt and the remaining (16.7%) consumed non-iodized salt. The median urinary iodine concentration of the study population was 105 μg/L. The mean urinary iodine level of pregnant women who consumed iodized salt and that of pregnant women who consumed non-iodizes salt were 110.47 ± 67.34 μg/L and 95.83 ± 70.13 μg/L (P = 0.336). Iodine content of the iodized salt and non-iodized salt was 20.6 ± 9.2 ppm and 5.1 ± 1.2 ppm respectively. In conclusion, the median iodine level of pregnant women was lower than that of the optimal iodine nutrition for pregnant women, i.e., 150 - 250 μg/L and the mean iodine content of salt samples was lower than the permissible level of iodine in iodized salt, i.e., 30 - 40 ppm. Conclusion: Our findings indicate that iodine nutritional status of pregnant women in this area is insufficient and salt iodization needs to be monitored for the optimal iodine content in iodized salt.

Complete immunization coverage among children aged between 18 and 23 months in the rural area of Mon State, Myanmar

Objective: To access complete immunization coverage among children aged 18-23 months living in the rural area of Mon State, Myanmar, and study the affecting factors. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in the rural area of Mon State in 2017. Totally 353 caregivers who had children aged 18 to 23 months were selected using multistage random sampling. Face-to-face interview was applied in data collection. Complete immunization status was defined according to the current practice of routine immunization in Myanmar. Chi-square test and multivariate logistic regression analysis were utilized in data analysis. Results: Most of the caregivers were mothers (86.1%). Among 353 children, 293 [83% (95% CI 79.1-86.9)] had been immunized completely. The majority of caregivers had good levels of knowledge (77.1%) and attitude (71.4%) towards routine immunization. Some children (17.6%) had minor adverse events after immunization such as fever, pain and redness at the site of vaccination. Caregivers’ knowledge and attitude towards immunization, and the occurrence of adverse events after immunization in previous immunization session were significantly related to the status of complete immunization coverage (P&lt;0.001). Conclusions: Complete immunization coverage among children living in the rural area of Mon State stands at 83% and should be improved. Health education campaigns with appropriate strategies should be reinforced or strengthened to enhance immunization coverage.

Factors that Influence Menstrual Hygiene Management in Adolescent Girls in Mudon Township, Mon State, Myanmar

Objective: The study assessed the underlying factors that influence menstrual hygiene management (MHM) in adolescent girls, and how it can have an effect on the girls’ education, health and daily life.Material and Methods: A community-based, quantitative cross-sectional study was conducted through face-to-face interviews, with 410 adolescent girls. Descriptive statistics, chi-square, bivariate and multivariate logistic regression were applied, to describe and predict significant associations and predictors between MHM and its independent variables; such as knowledge, attitudes and practices related to menstruation, and accessibility of MHM facilities.Results: More than half of the respondents had poor MHM levels. Menstrual knowledge [adjusted odds ratio (AOR)= 2.17, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.32-3.56], attitude towards menstruation (AOR=1.65, 95% CI: 1.11-2.46), menstrual hygiene practices (AOR=2.53, 1.78-3.98) and the accessibility of MHM facilities (AOR=2.44, 95% CI: 1.29-4.62) were the factors associated with MHM. Girls with poor MHM levels were 1.1 times more likely to be affected in their daily activities, as compared to those with good MHM levels.Conclusion: The adolescent girls participating in the study were still unable to manage their menstrual hygiene well, owing to their inadequate knowledge in relation to menstruation, unhealthy menstrual hygiene practices; and the limited accessibility to MHM facilities. Establishment of such correlation necessitates; for instance, setting up a menstrual health education program as well as provision of MHM facilities, will enable the adolescent girls in Mudon Township, Mon State, Myanmar to minimize the negative impacts on their daily lives.

THE CURRENT SITUATION OF MEDICAL STAFF COMMUNICATION WITH PATIENTS IN HOC MON STATE REGISTRATION HOSPITAL

Background: In addition to the professional capacity and ethical qualities, the attitude and communication behavior of medical staff with patient are important prefix can not missing, in order to create trust, satisfy patients and create quality medical examination and treatment services. Objective: Determine the state of behavioral communication and a number of factors related to the actual state of medical staff communication with patients at Hoc Mon State Registration Hospital in 2020. Methods: Cross-sectional descriptive. Results: Assessment of the importance level of communication skills in medical staff communication with the patient is 85.2% or more. In which, the level of importance: skills to establish relationships when communicating with patients 85%, listening skills to patients 91.1%; expression skills 94%, questioning skills 87.3%; emotional and behavior control skills 90.5%. Over 90% of research subjects agree with the benefits and importance of medical staff communication skills with patients during medical examination and treatment. The department’s characteristics are related to the assessment of the importance of communication with patients during medical examination and treatment. Income is positively correlated with assessment of the importance of communication with patients during medical examination and treatment. Conclusions: The actual state of medical staff communication with patients at Hoc Mon General Hospital is relatively good in both aspects: awareness and communication practice.

Traditional medicinal plants used by the Mon people in Myanmar

Ethnopharmacological relevanceMyanmar's Mon people largely depend on a traditional medical system for health care, however, information about their medical plants is rare in the current literature. In this first ethnobotanical study of Mon traditional medicinal plants (MTMs), we attempt to answer three research questions: 1) What species are used as MTMs by the Mon people and what diseases can be treated with these MTMs? 2) What are the general characteristics of these MTMs? 3) Which species and their usages have high consensus of knowledge? Aim of the studyWe aimed (1) to document both the diversity of medicinal plants used by the Mon people and their knowledge of the therapeutic usages of these plants; and (2) to quantitatively identify the most well-known medicinal plant species and prevalent diseases treated by these species, and to evaluate the status of scientific research and application for each of these species. Materials and methodsEthnobotanical surveys and interviews were carried out in 10 villages in four townships of Mon State, Myanmar in 2018. Data were collected from interviews with 131 informants, chosen via the snowball sampling method. Therapeutic uses of medicinal plants were categorized according to the ICPC-2 standard. Voucher specimens of plant species were collected and identified by experts. To evaluate the consensus of knowledge, we applied use reports (URs) using the R package of ethnobotanyR. ResultsIn total, we recorded 158 medicinal plant species belonging to 64 families as being used by the Mon people, with 13 species being newly recorded as medicinal plants in Myanmar. The people listed 78 therapeutic uses for these plants, which could be classified into 16 ICPC-2 disease categories. Digestive, urological and respiratory diseases ranked as the most prevalent diseases based on use reports. Fabaceae was the most represented family and the leaf was the most commonly used plant part. Decoction and oral administration ranked top in preparation and administration methods, respectively. Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr, the introduced species Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. Rob., Mimosa pudica L., Tadehagi triquetrum (L.) H. Ohashi, and Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC were the five most cited medicinal plant species, and were used to treat dysuria, cuts and wounds, cough, diabetes and gall stones respectively, with high consensus. ConclusionThe Mon people of Myanmar have a rich and diverse knowledge of traditional medicinal plants. The list of medicinal plants in Myanmar can be renewed, with the addition of 13 species. MTMs still function as an important component of the health care of the Mon people in Myanmar, and a systematic documentation of the local knowledge of MTMs would be of great value in the future. Resource monitoring, phytochemical and pharmacological research and evidence-based drug development are suggested to promote the use of MTMs and aid drug discovery.

Redescription of the type specimens of Althepus pictus Thorell, 1898 (Araneae, Psilodercidae) from Myanmar.

Althepus pictus Thorell, 1898 is the type species of the genus Althepus Thorell, 1898 from the family Psilodercidae Machado, 1951. This genus includes 60 species from Southeast Asia (WSC 2020). A. pictus was described on the basis of one male and one female from Carin Chebà mountains, elevation 600‒800 m, Kayin Province, Myanmar. Another female specimen lacking several legs was found in Farm Caves in Mawlamyine, Mon State, Myanmar. The original description was in Latin and without any figures. Fage (1912) redescribed it based on the same male and female type specimens from Carin Chebà, but without mentioning the female from Farm Caves. Fage (1912) provided measurements, but the figures of the male right palp are imprecise. The species is redescribed here based on the original male and female type specimens deposited in Museo Civico di Storia Naturale 'Giacomo Doria' (MSNG) in Italy. The male and female type specimens are the only known material of A. pictus. No information is available on the female specimen from Farm Caves, which maybe have been lost. No fresh material of this species has been collected in region during five subsequent expeditions to Myanmar tours organized by the Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute in the years 2016-2020.

Vector bionomics, potential vectors and insecticide efficacy in malaria endemic areas, Ye Township, Mon State Myanmar

Vector bionomics, potential vectors and insecticide efficacy in malaria endemic areas, Ye Township, Mon State Myanmar

Fish caught in clear water: encompassed state-making in south-east Myanmar

ABSTRACT This paper explores processes of state-making by the New Mon State Party (NMSP), an ethnic armed organization (EAO) that claims to represent the Mon people in south-east Myanmar, and which has fought the Myanmar military to pursue self-representation for the past 50 years. Based on ethnographic fieldwork, the paper focuses on a specific area that is encompassed by three states in the making: the NMSP, the official Myanmar state and another EAO, the Karen National Union (KNU). The paper shows that NMSP state-making happens neither in parallel to nor through a simple separation from the Myanmar government and the KNU, but through different forms of encompassment. It introduces the concept of ‘encompassed state-making’ to capture the simultaneous mimicry and opposition of the NMSP’s state-making practices in relation to the other two states. A core argument is that Mon villagers – albeit deeply loyal towards the NMSP and considering them the legitimate authority – constantly have to take into account the ongoing political transformation in the country and therefore critically have to engage in managing their lives in this encompassed state in formation.

Awareness and perception on sexual and reproductive health and self-reported premarital sex among never married youth in Chaungzone township, Mon State, Myanmar (2018)

Background: Premarital sexual practices among youth and adolescents have been highly recognized and are increasing worldwide. This study aimed to assess the awareness and perception on sexual and reproductive health and self-reported premarital sex among never married youth.Methods: The study used mixed method approach among 404 youth of equal number of male and female youth from urban and rural community using guided self-administered questionnaire and in-depth interview among 12 youth and key informant interview among 6 health professionals.Results: The study found that 11.4% (95% CI: 8.3, 14.5) of youth had premarital sex practice. After adjusting the covariates, the odds of practicing premarital sex were higher among 18 years and above (AOR=3.5, 95% CI: 1.2, 9.6), low education (AOR=3.3, 95% CI: 1.1, 10.7), youth having relationship (AOR=8.0, 95% CI: 3.0, 21.2) and youth who accepted premarital sex practice (AOR=10.9, 95% CI: 3.6, 33,1), having friends who had experience in premarital sex (AOR=3.9, 95% CI: 1.3, 11.4), compared to their counterparts. The qualitative findings revealed that most of youth and service providers did not accept premarital sex among youth because of its contradiction to traditional norms. Health care providers and youth suggested that privacy was the most critical thing in accessibility of reproductive health services among youth. All levels of providers pointed out that there were insufficient resources for provision of effective reproductive health services.Conclusions: Youth-friendly reproductive health services should be implemented to prevent unwanted pregnancy, abortions and sexually transmitted diseases to ensure safer sex practices among youth.

Enduring Peace: a Case Study of the Opportunities and the Challenges for Engaging in Myanmar’s Peace Process

In 2015, the Myanmar Government, the Myanmar Tatmadaw (military) and eight ethnic armed organisations (eaos) signed the 2015 National Ceasefire Agreement (nca). In 2019, this agreement was signed by three more eaos, and there have been four annual conferences (Union Peace Panglong Conference 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019). The ceasefire arrangements, which are present primarily in Southeast Myanmar, have failed to make significant progress in key areas such as the provision of access to civil documents and land to returning refugees, displaced persons and conflict-affected communities. Violence has escalated in the last two years. It is not an exaggeration to say that Myanmar is at a critical juncture of transition. This article examines how the peace process is being communicated amongst different civil society organisations, international organisations, donor organisations, and government representatives in an area directly affected by the peace process. The article details the experiences of these participants exchanged in workshop in Mon State in July 2018. The exchanges during the workshop reveal a practical obstacles faced by civil society organisations, especially, in their attempt to support returnees. Many reported frustration with the implementation gap between promoting a peace process and providing for local enabling conditions that support peace. Specific barriers faced by civil society organisations, and in turn the communities they are seeking to help were threefold: information and communication barriers concerning the peace process; women’s fear and reluctance to seek services due to personal safety concerns, and the persistence of traditional gender norms which affects access to information.

Maternal Knowledge on Routine Childhood Immunization: A Community Based Cross-sectional Study in Rural Area of Mon State, Myanmar

Aims: To determine the knowledge on routine childhood immunization and the factors associated with it among mothers in rural area of Mon State, Myanmar during 2017.&#x0D; Study Design: A community based cross-sectional study.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: Rural area of Mon State, Myanmar, between June and August 2017.&#x0D; Methodology: We included 302 mothers who had 18 to 23 months old children using multistage random sampling. Face-to-face interview was applied in data collection. Chi-square test and multivariate logistic regression analysis were utilized in data analysis.&#x0D; Results: More than three fourths of mothers (76.2%) had good knowledge level on routine childhood immunization. There was a significant association between maternal knowledge and immunization status of their children (p&lt;0.001). Logistic regression showed that the husband’s occupation was significantly associated with maternal knowledge (p=0.02).&#x0D; Conclusion: Majority of mothers have good knowledge on routine childhood immunization. However, health education campaign should be intensified to improve their knowledge level, especially among mothers whose husbands are blue-collar workers.

Length-weight relationship, condition factor and sex ratio of tade mullet (Liza tade Forsskal, 1775) from Mawlamyine, Mon state, Myanmar

The species of Liza tade were collected from Mawlamyine, Mon State, Myanmar during June 2018 to May 2019. The analysis of fishes was based on 1264 specimens ranging in size from 10 to 30cm and in weight from 15 to 190g. The length-weight relationship of L. tade was determined for males, females and combined sexes as W=0.016L2.82, W=0.016L2.84 and W=0.016L2.83 respectively. The samples have been found to be negative allometric growth pattern (b˂3). The results indicated that the value of correlation coefficient (r) for males, females and combined sexes were as 0.972, 0.975 and 0.973, which were closer to 1 indicating that the length-weight relationship was highly correlated. The condition factor (K) was recorded as 1.088 for males, 1.140 for females and 1.114 for all individuals respectively.

Arsenic Contamination in Drinking Water: A Case Study in Bilugyun Area, Chaungzon Township, Mon State

Arsenic Contamination in Drinking Water: A Case Study in Bilugyun Area, Chaungzon Township, Mon State