Molasses-based Distilleries Research Articles

Securing Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) in Molasses-Based Distilleries Located in Ganga Basin by Charter Action Plan

Securing Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) in Molasses-Based Distilleries Located in Ganga Basin by Charter Action Plan

Energy Policy - Ethanol Production in INDIA: The Roles of Policy, Price and Demand

Achieving energy security and the transitioning to a thriving low carbon economy is critical for a growing nation like India. Blending locally produced ethanol with petrol will help India strengthen its energy security, enable local enterprises and farmers to participate in the energy economy and reduce vehicular emissions, The Government of India notified the National Policy on Bio-fuels –2018 (NPB–2018) on 4.06.2018 wherein, under the Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Program, an indicative target of 20% blending of ethanol in petrol by 2030 was laid out.The current ethanol production capacity in India of 426 crore litres derived from molasses-based distilleries, and 258 cr. litres from grain based distilleries is proposed to be expanded to 760 cr.litres and 740 cr. litres respectively. This would be sufficient to produce 1016 cr. litres of ethanol required for EBP and 334 cr litres for other uses. This will require 60 lakh MT of sugar and 165 lakh MT of grains per annum in ESY 2025 to be used for producing ethanol, which the country can support. To get the ball rolling, MoP&NG should proclaim and lay out the target for 10% ethanol blending of gasoline fuel all over the country by April, 2022. MoP&NG should further initiate phased roll-out of 20% ethanol blending from April, 2023 onwards to enable action by all stakeholders, namely Oil Marketing Companies, vehicle manufacturers, service stations, distilleries, and entrepreneurs as per a detailed roll-out plan suggested (Figure 9.1). This should be supported by a simpler and quicker regulatory regime, preferably single window clearance by the States, MoEF&CC, PESO,DFPD and MoP&NG and the launch of educational campaigns for consumers. This study accelerate the adoption and transition to ethanol blended fuels,price incentives through tax relief at the retail level on ethanol blended fuel and tax incentives for vehicles compatible with E20 are suggested. The government may also encourage use of lower water consuming food grain crops like maize, and 2G feed stock for production of ethanol.

Pyrolysis of post-methanated distillery effluent (PMDE) solid waste: Thermogravimetric degradation, kinetic and thermodynamic study with a circular bioeconomy approach

Post-methanated distillery effluent (PMDE) is a harmful dark brown to black color distillery effluent and is often released in open pond systems after anaerobic digestion by molasses-based distilleries. Due to the high standards imposed by Environmental Protection Acts, various methods of treating effluent were explored. However, pyrolysis showed excellent potential to treat it and recover energy. Hence, the present study explores the viability of producing energy from PMDE solid waste through pyrolysis. The reaction was performed at 900 °C with 20 °C min −1 heating rate in a fixed bed reactor, resulting in 36.12 wt% condensable volatiles, 22.6 wt% non-condensable gases, and 41.28 wt% solid biochar. The gas chromatographic (GC) analysis of the non-condensable gas revealed the presence of CO (17.83 vol%), H2 (8.10 vol%), and CH4 (4.30 vol%) in significant amounts, and C2H4, C2H6, C3H8, and C4H10 in minor quantities. Biochar obtained from the process has a microscopic surface area of 62.13 m2 g−1. A kinetic and thermodynamic study was performed using isoconversional methods to understand the reaction mechanism. Kinetic analysis showed the activation energy of PMDE solid waste pyrolysis to vary from 120 kJ mol −1 to 180 kJ mol −1 as conversion increases, and thermodynamic parameters (ΔH, ΔS, and ΔG) show the explanation for variation in activation energy. Additionally, the bio-circular economic approach of PMDE solid waste was presented.

Preparation of quaternary ammonium-functionalized metal–organic framework/chitosan composite aerogel with outstanding scavenging of melanoidin

Melanoidins are hazardous coloring and polluting polymers widely found in the effluents of molasses-based distilleries and are negatively charged owing to carboxyl groups included in their chemical structures. A CHTA-modified metal–organic framework/chitosan composite aerogel (CHTA-MOF/CAG) was fabricated to serve as a melanoidin scavenger. The introduced functional monomer with an electropositive charge provides an effective binding site for capturing melanoidins. CHTA-MOF/CAG features highly dispersed CHTA target functional monomers and three-dimensional porous structures, thus achieving a larger adsorption capacity and higher mass transfer efficiency. The equilibrium adsorption of CHTA-MOF/CAG for melanoidins was as high as 465 mg/g, and the melanoidin removal percentage was 92%. Interaction, kinetics, and mass transfer micromechanisms studies revealed that two layers of melanoidins adsorbed on the CHTA-MOF/CAG surface were mostly mediated by the electrovalent linkage between carboxylate and quaternary ammonium, followed by electron sharing. On average, one melanoidin molecule can be shared by three to four quaternary ammonium groups of CHTA-MOF/CAG, indicating a parallel adsorption orientation. Adsorption onto active sites is the rate-controlling mechanism of the system, and the diffusion of melanoidins to CHTA-MOF/CAG is fairly rapid. CHTA-MOF/CAG showed a higher affinity for lower molecular weight melanoidins than pigments with larger molecular sizes.

Arbuscular mycorrhizas accelerate the degradation of colour containing organic pollutants present in distillery spent wash leachates

Distillery spent wash (DSW) from molasses-based distilleries is being used as a low-cost alternative to chemical fertilizers in countries like India and Brazil. However, using DSW as a fertilizer substitute causes organic pollutant leaching, including melanoidins and caramel colourants that turn bodies of water dark brown. This study investigated the arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) mediated degradation of organic pollutants in DSW.Mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal Sorghum bicolor were grown in microcosms for 16 weeks. The plants were fertilized with either raw DSW or Hoagland solution. Leachates draining from the microcosms after fertilization were collected three times in 30-day intervals. Each 30-day collection was preceded by two fertilizations. A gas chromatography-mass spectrometry comparative analyses of raw DSW with leachates of the third collection from mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal microcosms was made. Sixty-five and 42 complex organic compounds were detected in raw DSW and leachate collected from the non-mycorrhizal pots respectively. Only 26 compounds were detected in leachate collected from mycorrhizal pots. Absent from leachate of the mycorrhizal pots were: colour-containing organic compounds diacetone alcohol; 3-amino-2-cyano-6-methyl-6,7-dihydrothieno[2,3-b]pyrazine S-oxide; cyclohexane; 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, butyl 8-methylnonyl ester; 2-pyrrolidinone; and acetic acid, dodecyl ester present in raw DSW. The results indicate that AM fungi can degrade organic pollutants in DSW.

Insights into mass transfer mechanism and micro-interaction of melanoidin adsorption on polyethyleneimine-functionalised pomelo-peel-derived aerogel

Melanoidins are recalcitrant colouring and polluting polymers present in the effluent streams of molasses-based distilleries. Adsorption is the most prospective technology with ease of operation and high efficiency. Herein, the removal of melanoidins from spent wash was investigated by synthesising a polyethyleneimine (PEI) functionalised pomelo-peel (PP) derived aerogel (PEI-PPA). The PEI-PPA is distinguished by the porous network structure and abundant accessible functional groups (mainly protonated primary amine) that are conducive to the elimination of colouring contaminants (melanoidins). The incorporation of PEI into supporting matrices (i.e., PP–derived aerogel) effectively improved the melanoidin adsorption capacity (from a previous-best research of 230 mg/g to the current 615.70 mg/g), while the melanoidin removal rate reached 92.36 %. The independent gradient model and Hirshfeld surface analysis were used to investigated the possible electroweak interaction relationship between PEI-PPA and melanoidin. By analysing the number of melanoidin molecules bonded to each active site using a novel double-layer adsorption model, a mixed inclination (parallel and non-parallel orientation) of melanoidin onto the PEI-PPA surface was found. For the two mass transfer models fitted results, the adsorption onto the active sites (AOAS) model better described the behaviour of melanoidin adsorption by PEI-PPA than the external diffusion resistance–internal diffusion resistance (EDR–IDR) mixed model under the same conditions, revealing the AOAS was rate-controlling during the mass transfer process. AOAS both contained chemisorption and physisorption. The calculated rates of chemisorption were far higher than those of physisorption before equilibration, indicating chemisorption was main the rate-determining step. Altogether, this work proposed an effective conversion for PP into bio-adsorbent and provided a detailed analysis of mass transfer mechanism.

Mitigation of hazards and risks of emerging pollutants through innovative treatment techniques of post methanated distillery effluent - A review

Distillery wastewater has high biological and chemical oxygen demand and requires additional treatment before it can be safely discharged into receiving water. It is usually processed through a biomethanation digester and the end product is the post-methanated distillery effluent (PMDE). Research have shown that PMDE released by molasses-based distilleries is a hazardous effluent that can cause harm to the biota and the environment; it contains elevated amount of total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS) and excess levels of persistent organic compounds (POPs), heavy metals, phenolic compounds, and salts. The practice of wastewater reuse for irrigation in many water scarce countries necessitates the proper treatment of PMDE before it is discharged into receiving water. Convention methods have been in practice for decades, but innovative technologies are needed to enhance the efficiency of PMDE treatment. Advance physical treatment such as membrane separation technology using graphene, ion-exchange and ultrafiltration membranes; chemical treatment such as advanced oxidation methods, electrocoagulation and photocatalytic technologies; biological treatment such as microbial and enzymatic treatment; and hybrid treatment such as microbial-fuel cell (MFC), genetically modified organisms (GMO) and constructed wetland technologies, are promising new methods to improve the quality of PMDE. This review provides insight into current accomplishments evaluates their suitability and discusses future developments in the detoxification of PMDE. The consolidated knowledge will help to develop a better management for the safe disposal and the reuse of PMDE wastewater.

Organo-metallic pollutants of distillery effluent and their toxicity on freshwater fish and germinating Zea mays seeds

Anaerobically treated molasses-based distilleries spent wash is a major source of terrestrial and aquatic pollution due to the mixture of the various unknown organometallic compounds in discharged waste. The nature of pollutants present in effluent has to be characterized prior to the evaluation of their fate in the environment at various tropic levels. The absorption maxima (λmax) were obtained at 295 nm of pollutants present in spent wash which indicated that melanoidins are a major colorant along with other organic compounds. Abundantly identified compounds with GC–MS in effluent were found: 1,2,4,5-tetrahydro-2-methyl-3H-2-benzazepine-3-one, 6-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-imidazole [4,5-c] pyridine, 4,6-di-t-butyl-1H, 3H-thieno[3,4-c] thiophene, butanoic acid, trimethylsilyl ester, silane, (dodecyloxy)trimethylsilyl ester, 4-styryl [2,2] paracyclophane, 4-(p-cumylphenoxy) phthalonitrile, hexadecanoic acid, trimethylsilyl ester, butyl ester, and squalene. Some of these compounds are known with mutagenic and androgenic properties. The toxicity test of post-methanated distillery effluent (PMDE) showed direct toxic effects on catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis) even at 1% (v/v) concentration and caused degeneration of primary and secondary lamellae of the gill and the epithelial layer. Further, higher concentrations between 5 and 10% of PMDE showed loss of primary and secondary lamellae of gills, and liver catalase activity was also increased dramatically in H. fossilis, indicating the generation of oxidative free radicals. Similarly, inhibition of α-amylase activities in germinating Zea mays L. (Maize) seeds was also noted at 10% PMDE. This study confirmed the environmental toxicity of effluent with freshwater fish and Zea mays seeds.

Efficiency of physicochemical and biological treatments of vinasse and their influence on indigenous microbiota for disposal into the environment

Molasses-based distilleries are one of the most polluting industries generating large volumes of high strength wastewater called vinasse. Different processes covering anaerobic, aerobic as well as physicochemical methods have been employed to treat this effluent. This study evaluated the microbial communities present in the vinasse during different stages of its treatment by traditional and molecular methods. The analysis of the efficiency of each treatment was performed by physicochemical parameters and toxicity analysis. The treatment of vinasse was performed in the following steps: high flow fermentation; filtration; chemical flakes; low-flow fermentation; filtration; and neutralization. The physicochemical analysis in different stages of the vinasse treatment demonstrated that phases of treatment influenced the performance of the evaluated parameters. Among the 37 parameters, 9 were within the limits established by the Commission for Environmental Policy of Minas Gerais, Brazil (COPAM), especially BOD (96.7% of pollution reduction), suspended solids (99.9%), pH, copper (88%), iron (92.9%), and manganese (88%). Some parameters, even after treatment, did not fit the maximum allowed by legislation. The microbial population decreased reaching 3 log CFU/ml present in the steps of the flakes chemical and disinfection treatment of vinasse. Lactobacillus brevis and Pichia kudriavzevii were present in all stages of the treatments, showing that these microorganisms were resistant and demonstrated that they might be important in the treatment of vinasse. The vinasse showed a significant reduction of pollution load after the disinfection treatment however still should not be discarded into water bodies because the high values of tannins and sediment solids, but suggest the use of the effluent in the cooling coil during the distillation process of the beverage.

Wet air oxidation pretreatment of biomethanated distillery effluent: Mapping pretreatment efficiency in terms color, toxicity reduction and biogas generation

The effluents from molasses-based distilleries after biomethanation are beset with problems of intensified dark brown color, high residual COD, low biodegradability index (BOD/COD ratio <0.2) and toxicity issues for possible land application as a potential fertilizer. Wet air oxidation (WAO) pretreatment of biomethanated distillery effluent resulted in substantial enhancement in the biodegradability index (BI) (up to 0.8). WAO pretreated effluent on anaerobic digestion indicated favorable biogas generation with methane content up to 64% along with concomitant COD reduction up to 54.75%. The HPLC analysis indicated that the pretreatment facilitated degradation of major color containing compounds-namely melanoidins, up to 97.8%. The pretreated effluent with enhanced biodegradability along with substantially reduced color also indicated positive effect on seed germination (up to 100%), implying toxicity reduction of the effluent post WAO pretreatment.

Study of physio-chemical characteristics and biological treatment of molasses-based distillery effluent

Molasses based distilleries are recognized as of major polluting industries with a large amount of annual effluent production. Modi Distillery, located at Modi Nagar in western Uttar Pradesh, is a molasses-based distillery with a capacity of 26 KLPD. Being an alcohol-processing unit, we estimated capacity and efficiency of Modi distillery that discharges highly polluted effluent to small drainage with a very high biological oxygen demand (BOD) (42,000-51,000mg/ltr) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) (85,000-1,00,000mg/ltr) levels. Analysis of physio-chemical properties of distillery effluent showed higher temperature and proportion of dissolved organic and inorganic compounds. Presence of oxidized dissolved solids and acids lowered pH of effluent and increased toxicity. We measured quality of effluent as per standard recommendations. Investigation of water consumption in different processes of distillery and detailed evaluation of characteristics of effluent generated from above processes was analyzed. Towards management of polluted byproduct, we treated distillery effluent with bacterial consortium of Pseudomonas grimonti , Bacillus sp. MH-I6 and Staphylococcus sp . CSA strain. Treated effluent showed a significant decrease in BOD (76%) and COD (62%) levels. Present study represented an account of physio-chemical characteristics of discharges effluent from sugarcane molasses-based Modi distillery and its biological treatment towards optimization of effective management of distillery byproduct.

EVALUATION OF PHOSPHORUS ENRICHED POST-METHANATION BIOSLUDGES AS PHOSPHORUS SOURCES: CHEMICAL SPECIATION AND FIELD STUDY

□ Phosphorus enriched post-methanation biosludges (PEMB) from molasses-based distilleries have been developed and evaluated as phosphorus (P) sources for rice-wheat rotation under field condition in a Mollisol. Chemical speciation of P and calcium (Ca) in the aqueous solution of these new P sources PEMB 1 (5.1% P) and PEMB 2 (7.61% P) revealed that a higher proportion of soluble Ca in single superphosphate (SSP) existed as free Ca2+ while it was complexed by dissolved organic carbon in both PEMB 1 and PEMB 2. In the field experiment, application of PEMB 2 at 16.5 kg P ha−1 resulted in either statistically similar or higher grain yields and total P uptake in both rice and wheat crops than with SSP applied at 22.0 kg P ha−1. Mean apparent P recovery values with PEMB 2 were higher than the respective values observed with PEMB 1 or with SSP applied at 22.0 kg P ha−1.

Using strong acid–cation exchange resin to reduce potassium level in molasses vinasses

Molasses-based distilleries are one of the most vulnerable to pollution industries, which always generate large volumes of high strength vinasse. Recently, one of the most effective re-applications/reuse of vinasse is concentrating the molasses vinasse to prepare as fodder additive for animal food. However, the dosage of molasses vinasse to be added as animal feed is always limited because of the unexpectedly high potassium content in molasses vinasse. In present study, potassium ions were firstly extracted from molasses vinasses using a strong acid–cation exchange resin, and then desorbed from the resin and dissolved into the eluate by H 2SO 4 solution as the strong acid–cation exchange resin was regenerated. Finally, evaluation to recycle and reuse the mother liquor (once-used eluant), after extracting K 2SO 4 crystals from the eluant, was investigated. Results indicated that using the mother liquor to elute the resin column which absorbing K + from molasses vinasse was a potential means for industrial production of potassium salt. Meanwhile, the molasses vinasse which has removed most potassium ions might be used as animal feed.

Effect on physico-chemical and structural properties of soil amended with distillery effluent and ameliorated by cropping two cereal plant spp.

Molasses-based distilleries are one of the most polluting industries generating large volume of wastewater. Distillery effluent (DE) on its discharge alters the physical and chemical properties of the soil. This study has been conducted to assess the distribution of heavy metals and its effect on physiochemical and structural changes of soil which has been treated with diluted and undiluted effluents. The soil has been assayed both before and after crop plantation. Out of the crop plants studied, Cicer arietinum was least effected and more effective than Pisum sativum in diminishing the heavy metals from soil. However, only at higher concentration DE has some adverse impact on the nutrient contents of the soil. Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FTIR) study of the soil indicated the presence of –OH, –NH, –COOH groups. It was also noted that the soil amended with different concentration of DE and on which Cicer and Pisum were grown has varied IR spectrum. These variations show the presence of different functional groups of soil before and after plants were grown. The presence of inorganic carbonate was found in soil planted with Cicer from 10 to 50% of DE, whereas aliphatic primary amides were observed up to 25 and 100% concentrations of DE in soil planted with Pisum. The appearance of inorganic nitrates, carbonates, aliphatic hydrocarbons and aliphatic primary amides at various concentrations of DE showed a change in functional groups probably because of the differential breakdown of parent component present in the effluent. Besides our main finding that Cicer is a very useful crop species in remediating the soil which has inflicted with even undiluted DE, it is also validated through FTIR spectra that IR technique is an efficient tool in studying the structural changes of soil and with some degree of caution may be summed up that FTIR may be used to correlate the relative efficacy of plants to transform organic contaminants.

Development of a novel fungal consortium for the treatment of molasses distillery wastewater

In India, cane molasses-based distilleries are major production centers of ethanol. These industries release a dark brown colored effluent known as spent wash, which even after anaerobic treatment retains the color. The commonly used practices of treatment fail to remove the color and COD. A novel fungal consortium was developed for the treatment of this recalcitrant wastewater. The con- sortium was run on a bioreactor with undiluted distillery effluent for 40 days. In the first 14 days, 61.5% color and 65.4% COD removal was achieved. Further, the fungi were able to use wheat straw as carbon source as evidenced by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) while treating the distillery wastewater. It is expected that such a treatment step will lead to development of a treatment technology for distillery wastewater without the need for diluting it.

Novel strategy using an adsorbent-column chromatography for effective ethanol production from sugarcane or sugar beet molasses

Molasses-based distilleries generate large volumes of a highly polluted and dark brown-colored wastewater. The present work describes the way in which an adsorbent-column chromatography can effectively remove the colorant and produce biomass ethanol from sugarcane or sugar beet molasses. It was found that the color and chemical oxygen demand of the resulting wastewater was respectively reduced by approximately 87% and 28% as compared with conventional molasses fermentation. Gas chromatography showed that the decolorized molasses maintained good ethanol productivity almost equal to that of the original molasses. Furthermore, it was revealed that the colorant concentrations of about 5 mg ml −1 in the medium were the most favorable for ethanolic fermentation. In summary, we have concluded that this method is the most effective when the adsorbent chromatography is performed just before molasses fermentation and that the decolorized molasses is an ideal substrate for fuel ethanol production.

Wastewater treatment in molasses-based alcohol distilleries for COD and color removal: A review

Molasses-based distilleries are one of the most polluting industries generating large volumes of high strength wastewater. Different processes covering anaerobic, aerobic as well as physico-chemical methods have been employed to treat this effluent. Anaerobic treatment is the most attractive primary treatment due to over 80% BOD removal combined with energy recovery in the form of biogas. Further treatment to reduce residual organic load and color includes various: (i) biological methods employing different fungi, bacteria and algae, and (ii) physico-chemical methods such as adsorption, coagulation/precipitation, oxidation and membrane filtration. This work presents a review of the existing status and advances in biological and physico-chemical methods applied to the treatment of molasses-based distillery wastewater. Both laboratory and pilot/industrial studies have been considered. Furthermore, limitations in the existing processes have been summarized and potential areas for further investigations have been discussed.

Impact of Post-Methanation Distillery Effluent Irrigation on Groundwater Quality

Molasses-based distilleries generate large quantities of effluent, which is used for irrigation in many countries including India. The effluent is rich in organic and inorganic ions, which may leach down and pollute the groundwater. An on-farm experiment was conducted to assess the impact of long-term irrigation with post-methanation distillery effluent (PMDE) on nitrate, sulphate, chloride, sodium, potassium, and magnesium contents in the groundwater of two sites in northwest India. Electrical conductivity (EC), pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and colour were also determined to assess the chemical load in the groundwater. Nitrate content in the groundwater samples ranged from 16.95 mg L(-1) in the unamended fields to 59.81 mg L(-1) in the PMDE-amended fields during the 2-year study (2001-2002). Concentrations of TDS in water samples from tubewell of the amended field was higher by 40.4% over the tubewell water of the unamended field. Colour of the water samples of the amended fields was also darker than that of the unamended fields. The study indicated that the organic and inorganic ions added through the effluent could pose a serious threat to the groundwater quality if applied without proper monitoring.

Cultivation of oyster mushrooms on wheat straw and bagasse substrate amended with distillery effluent

Molasses-based distilleries produce large quantities of dark coloured effluent, which is a major cause of environmental pollution. An experiment was conducted to investigate the efficacy of distillery effluent amendment for edible mushroom production. Three species of oyster mushroom, namely Pleurotus florida Eger (EM 1303), Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fries) Quelet (EM 1302) and Pleurotus sajor-caju (Fries) Singer (EM 1304) were grown on wheat straw (variety UP 2338) and bagasse amended with post-anaerobic distillery effluent, a high organic load wastewater with high biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand. Three different levels of effluent treatment were applied to bagasse and wheat straw. Wheat straw was found to be the preferred substrate and showed better results than bagasse in all treatments with respect to yield, biological efficiency (BE) and dry matter loss. P. florida (EM 1303) and P. pulmonarius (EM 1302) gave significantly enhanced yield with increasing levels of effluent, with BE reaching highest at 238.6% for P. florida (EM 1303). Using bagasse as a substrate, P. sajor-caju (EM 1304) and P.␣pulmonarius (EM 1302) exhibited a decreasing trend as compared to control. However, the effect of effluent concentrations did not influence yield and BE significantly in case of bagasse. The dry matter loss of the substrate varied from 9.4% to 53.4% in wheat straw and 17.5% to 45.2% in bagasse respectively.