Modern Conception Of Human Rights Research Articles

Formation and development of the idea of guaranteeing human and civil rights and freedoms in the theoretical and legal heritage of Ukraine

The article is devoted to the analysis of historical development and formation of the ideas of guaranteeing human and civil rights and freedoms in the context of the theoretical and legal heritage of Ukraine. The author examines the key stages of the evolution of legal ideas, from ancient times to the present, noting the influence of different historical periods on the formation of the modern concept of human rights. Knowledge of the historical experience and theoretical foundations of human rights guarantees helps to formulate strategies and policies that can ensure real protection of fundamental rights and freedoms in conditions when they are threatened by external aggression and internal challenges. The article focuses on the importance of developing a natural law concept based on the principles of freedom, equality and justice, which are considered fundamental to understanding human rights. A special place in the analysis is occupied by the study of the Lithuanian Statute, Magdeburg Lawand the role of polemical works in the development of legal consciousness. The authors point to the multifaceted approaches to the study of human rights, their origin, content and relationship with the state, emphasising the importance of democratic regimes in the consolidation and enforcement of rights and freedoms. The conclusions emphasise that the notion of human rights as natural and primary is crucial for the development of Ukrainian political and legal thought, which contributed to the formation of the rule of law and civil society in Ukraine. In the context of post-war reconstruction, the authors emphasise the critical importance of respecting and ensuring human rights and freedoms as a basis for the restoration and development of a democratic society. Democratic regimes that uphold the principles of freedom, equality and justice are key to the effective reconstruction and stabilisation of society. The adoption of international human rights standards and their integration into national policies will be key to successful post-war reconstruction, while laying a solid foundation for Ukraine’s future development.

On the Nature of Human Rights with Regard to Types of Law Understanding

The article raises the problem of understanding human rights in their relationship with the type of law understanding. Legal positivism, sociological positivism, theory of natural law and philosophical understanding of law (libertarian theory of law) stand out as the main approaches of law. It is noted that the normative approach involves the direct dependence of human rights on the will of the state; it does not matter the content of the right, but its formal consolidation in the law. The sociological approach, also within the framework of the legalist direction of law understanding, in contrast to legal positivism, connects human rights not with the state, but with social life, as a product of the development of society, and considers their existence not in law, but in legal relations. The natural law approach to understanding law is considered primarily as a definite stage in the development of ideas about law. Human rights in this context are considered as an expression of human freedom of choice and action, having a natural nature. However, in the modern world, such rights should be formally enshrined, reflecting the value aspect of law. The libertarian theory of Professor V.S. Nersesyants also reflects the idea of the meaning of freedom for the existence of a right that is different from the law, but recognizes the existence of human rights both natural and dependent on the will of the state. The authors conclude that the essential characteristics of human rights derived from the content of these types of law understanding in modern constitutional law have formed a symbiotic approach, In other words, the modern conception of human rights is based on all these types of law understanding.

Implementation of Human Rights

Human rights are understood as rights that belong to every individual as a consequence of being human, regardless of legal acts. By affirming the existence of human rights, we say that every human being, by the very fact that he or she is such, is entitled to something. The modern concept of human rights is rooted in experiences of "legal illegality" when crimes were committed under the authority of the law and when some human beings were denied such status. These rights are defined as those rights that are inherent in our nature and without which we cannot live as human beings. Basic human rights and freedoms give us the opportunity to fully develop and use our human qualities, our intelligence, our consciousness, and fulfill our demands. The issue of human rights has received a great deal of attention. Today, the violation of human rights is taken seriously by international bodies and most countries have their own legislation to guarantee the protection and implementation of human rights. Human rights are closely related to the state's obligation to protect and promote them. Putting the state in their focus refers to the governing model, the state is the main actor, the responsible and responsible entity for the promotion of human rights and freedoms. In fact, the obligation and role of the state does not consist only in a passive position to promote them, but at the same time, it also has as a duty and as a primary obligation the undertaking of actions to guarantee and protect human rights and freedoms through policies active. The issue of human rights has attracted the attention of many people. As a legal category, human rights are presented in the creation of the first legal rules, where these give us the opportunity to develop and fully use our qualities and fulfill our requirements. The most effective protection of human rights is through state public institutions, where the state has the most powerful monopoly of force through which it can realize political goals and ideas, The aspiration to protect human dignity represents the essence of the concept of human rights. This aspiration puts the human being at the center of interest, where it is based on the common universal system of values committed to the right to life, as an inviolable right, and provides a framework for building the system of human rights. to man.
 
 Received: 05 May 2022 / Accepted: 17 May 2023 / Published: 20 May 2023

RELEVANCE OF N.A. BERDIAEV PHILOSOPHY IN THE DEMOCRATIC CONDITIONS OF THE XXI CENTURY

The views of the “Silver Age” philosophers are undoubtedly of great interest to the researchers, since they reflect the confrontation between the democratic principles of the Western states ruled by the primacy of law and the first signs of the emerging socialist regime with the domination of one ideology, a single political party and an equalizing distribution. The dilemma of the philosophical approaches is observed in the works of N.A. Berdyaev, who studied both the signs of totalitarianism and the rule of law. The purpose of this research is to consider the major provisions of N.A. Berdyaev’s philosophy through the prism of the modern Russia’s political regime and the existing constitutional system in our country. Conclusions. Philosophical views of N.A. Berdyaev are still relevant nowadays. At the beginning of the last century, long before the emergence of the rule of law in our country, he precisely described the essence of natural (inalienable) human and civil rights and freedoms, coinciding with the modern concept of human rights. However, one should note that the development of communism and the emerging proletarian dictatorship caused the philosopher’s negative attitude to the institution of the state (the kingdom of Caesar), which he viewed as the institution suppressing personal freedom. We believe that his views are partially relevant for the contemporary political regime of our country, where personal freedom is limited, but this is aimed at maintaining order and preventing chaos in society. Berdyaev rightly noted that positive law is applied to maintain the order in the state; it is obvious that this function has been preserved to this day. It can be concluded that despite the predominance of the religious component in the philosophy of N.A. Berdyaev, his political and legal views are relevant today, since they develop the concept of the rule of law and the individual’s inalienable rights and freedoms.

СТАНОВЛЕННЯ І РОЗВИТОК ПРАВ ЛЮДИНИ У СТАРОДАВНІЙ ГРЕЦІЇ

The article analyzes the emergence and development of human rights in ancient Greece as a socio-historical phenomenon. The author finds that the term «human rights» originated relatively recently and finally became established after the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the UN General Assembly on December 10, 1948, but the ideas of equality and justice were traced in such ancient collections as Hammurabi's Laws, Moses' Laws, Old Testament, Laws of Manu, etc. It is established that the protection of individual rights in ancient times became widespread in ancient Greece, where human rights became a natural consequence of the polis form of democracy and were associated mainly with the concept of citizenship, which provided the equality of all members of the policy in the exercise of rights and freedoms, especially political. Consequently, the existence of human rights, recognized by most ancient Greek thinkers, in particular the principles of equality, justice, freedom and protection of individual rights are traced in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Pythagoreans, Democritus, Sophists (especially Protagoras, Antiphon, Lycophron, Alcidamas of Elaea), Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Epicurus. Certain human rights provisions were included in the Draconian laws, which restricted the over-interpretation of the law by the archons, as well as Solon's reforms, regarding to, inter alia, the cancellation of the debts of the poor and the granting them of certain rights, including political ones. For ancient Greece, the notion of natural law, founded by Hesiod as a law by nature (feses), is fundamental. The Pythagoreans formulated the concepts of «appropriate measure» and «proportionality» as justice in human relations, which played an important role in shaping the ideas of legal equality of people. Democritus first raised the problem of individual human freedom, arguing that wise and good people, because they are able to comprehend the laws of nature and the highest justice, must live freely. The Sophists established the postulate of the fundamentality of natural law, contrasting it with positive law. Protagoras formulated the maxim: «Man is the measure of all things», which is in fact decisive in the modern concept of human rights and freedoms, where man is proclaimed the highest value. Protagoras and Antiphon substantiated the idea of equality of all people by nature. Alcidamas of Elaea, and later the Stoics developed the idea of equality of all people, including slaves. Lycophron declared personal rights an inalienable natural right. Socrates recognized political freedom, in accordance with the requirements of reason and justice, a beautiful and majestic property for both man and the state. Plato, like Socrates, identified legality (law) and justice. He proclaimed the principle of equality of all before the state, regardless of origin and gender. Aristotle distinguished between distributive and equalizing justice, which is the basis of modern legal understanding. He argued that natural law personifies political justice, which is possible only between free and equal people. Epicurus believed that justice, which comes from nature, is also a socially contractual phenomenon. He substantiated the ethical autonomy of man.

HISTORICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION OF BACKGROUND HUMAN RIGHTS IDEAS

It is shown that the origins of the modern concept of human rights as the leading political and legal doctrine are in the horizon of the formation of philosophical knowledge. The ideas of the thinkers of antiquity, the Middle Ages and the New Age regarding freedom, equality, justice and human dignity, which constitute the basic principles and values of the concept of human rights, are considered. The genesis of human rights occurs in the context of the development of natural-legal thinking and the search for a balance between individual happiness and public good. It is proved that modern ideas about human rights are based on philosophical concepts, the quintessence of which was the proclamation of the autonomy and freedom of the individual.

The Religious Roots of the American Concept of Human Rights

The paper is devoted to the analysis of the primary source of the modern concept of human rights – the United States Declaration of Independence, a document directly related to the “Jefferson’s Bible” quilted by the author of the Declaration T. Jefferson. The author emphasizes that the United States of America were perceived by Jefferson as New Israel, the idea traditionally supported by the dominant US ideology, which determines the nature of foreign policy and the interpretation of international law. Tracing historical dynamics of Jeffersonian ideas, the author briefly analyses the current state of human rights concept in international law in its constant political time-serving changes. The author concludes that the concept of human rights does not have its own ontology, and in modern conditions becomes the basis of the idea of the West exceptionalism in relation to the rest of the world. The article notes that the idea upheld by the West concerning the primacy of human rights over the principle of State sovereignty leads to the collapse of the entire system of international relations and international law and means permanent war.

The concept of human rights: doctrinal approaches

The article examines the modern concept of human rights as the universally accepted system of views and attitudes about the place and role of human rights in the society and the state. The list of human rights enshrined in these international instruments and the constitutions of many countries, was the result of a long historical development of samples and standards of human life and the entire community. It is emphasized that on the basis of a combination of natural and positivistic concepts of human rights and made possible the consolidation of fundamental freedoms in the constitutions of democratic States. The article focuses on the basic concepts of how to solve the problem of human rights and legal status of the individual which have developed in the history of legal theory and practice of various peoples: liberal (European) concept of human rights, collectivist, Islamic and traditionalist concept. It is emphasized that a decisive influence on the establishment of human rights made on the liberal conception of natural law doctrine, which established the priority of human rights, the new parameters of the relationship between the individual and the government. In the statement of the rights and freedoms of man played an important role in their ideological, doctrinal justification – the doctrine of natural human rights that do not depend on the discretion and arbitrariness of the government, and it is aimed at ensuring the rights defined by nature. Based on this doctrine and on the above mentioned international legal instruments, the new Constitution of Ukraine establishes a number of new rights, which were previously unknown or Constitution of the Soviet Ukraine nor the Ukrainian legislation: the right to life, right to dignity, the right to respect for private and family life, freedom of movement and free choice of residence, right to freedom of thought and speech, free expression of views and beliefs, and so on. Therefore, a new concept of the relationship between the Ukrainian state and the person with priority to the latter is brought to life, since the category of human rights operates solely in relations between man and power. Human rights are the limits of power. They define the sphere of human activity in which the power (the state) cannot interfere and the responsibilities which the state has for the human being. The article also discusses four generations of human rights, it is noted that in the XXI century. we can talk about the formation of the fourth generation of human rights, which is connected with the scientific discoveries in the field of microbiology, medicine, genetics and more. It is this generation that is at the center of intense debate precisely in terms of the naturalness of these phenomena and processes, from the standpoint of morality and worldview of a particular society, as well as based on the content of scientific doctrine. As a conclusion, the author writes that the legally enshrined legal position of a person has as its basis a liberal and natural-law concept, which stipulated as the primary principles freedom and inalienability, inalienability of human rights that belong to it from birth. Reference points are made in the relationship between the state and man - freedom, equality, the rule of law, the universality of human rights. And on these principles, principles, in addition to the actual scope of human rights and obligations, are exercised by these rights and freedoms. Keywords: constitution, concept of human rights, international legal act, human rights, natural law.

An Analysis of the Judicial Enforcement of Social and Economic Rights

The modern concept of human rights can be traced back to the European Renaissance. However, it was only after the foundation of the United Nations Organization that practical steps toward global recognition and enforcement could become possible. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights(UDHR) is a unique document in the sense that never before in the history of mankind, nations did agree on universal human rights standards. As it was a declaration and non-binding in nature, it was succeeded by two conventions namely, the International Convention on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Convention on Social Economic and Cultural Rights(ICSER), each comprising of a separate set of human rights. On the other hand, their champion sargue that civil and political rights are a wasteful luxury for an empty belly.

Lidská práva a sociální učení církve

Human rights are understood today as one of the foundational elements of Catholic social teaching. The official positions of the Catholic doctrinal statements have, however, undergone a remarkable development since the 18th century, when the modern conception of human rights was formulated. This essay deals with the theme of “Human Rights and Catholic Social Teaching” from both historical and systematic-theological perspectives. First, an overview of the historical reception of human rights within Catholic social teaching (and primarily within the papal pronouncements) will be provided. Then, basic guidelines for the theological interpretation of this historical development will be presented. In conclusion, the specific understanding of human rights in Catholic social teaching will be systematically considered.

Úsvit lidských práv: Počátky debaty o lidských právech ve španělské pozdní scholastice

The origins of the modern concept of human rights are most frequently linked with the Enlightenment. However, one of the first discussions concerning the “rights of human beings” can be found at the outset of the modern period, in the context of the so-called Spanish Late Scholastic period, and in connection with ethical reflection on the colonization of the New World. The most notable participants in this discussion were Francisco de Vitoria, OP (1483–1546) and Bartolomé de Las Casas, OP (1484–1566). This essay will examine their views on human rights, which are of significance to the history of ideas. It will conclude by pointing to the manner in which this human rights debate, which emerged from the occupation of territories in the New World, came to influence the human rights debate in the Enlightenment.

Citizenship, Racial Inequality And Affirmative Action Policies

CITIZENSHIP, RACIAL INEQUALITY AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION POLICIES Angela Randolpho Paiva∗ Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro Introduction Modern citizenship in western democracies means in its very basis the effective fulfillment of human rights in the public sphere. Thus the building of citizenship in each of these societies should focus on how the conception of human rights became part of the political project of different states, and also what makes the public sphere more inclusive and more diverse. This demands the analysis of the complex equation between the promises of rights written in the constitutions of modern societies with the maintenance of an economic social order that generates increasing social inequality. From a sociological viewpoint, it is important to understand the revolutionary concept of social equality: If at first it meant an abstract ideal to be pursued, later it implied the quest for the material realization of social rights in several of the 20th century welfare states, when it turned out to be strong enough to be internalized as a “moral issue”, as Taylor (1989) would describe it, and resulted in actual change in the sociopolitical organizations of modern societies. Therefore, the analysis of the enlargement of the public sphere is crucial to understand the moment societies go in the direction of either being more diverse, as is the case of the inclusion of workers or women in the political process last century, when these segments were granted their political rights, or in the direction of keeping other segments outside. Although it is often assumed that more equality brings necessarily more inclusion, this can be a complex equation when other variables are considered, such as prejudice or discrimination. The segregation of blacks in the USA – a country that would praise equality as one of its foundation principle –is a good illustration of this false equation. When translated to Brazilian social conditions, the analysis of the equation between social equality and participation in the public sphere must begin with the structural inequality of its social order. Thus applying the framework of the modern conception of human rights in the Brazilian case is a difficult task – in a public sphere whose original trace is its inequality. Furthermore, as will be argued in the present study, social inequality and exclusion also have a color, as blacks have been systematically kept away ∗ I thank Edward Telles and Jerry Dávila for the reading of an early version of this article, as well as the anonymous reviewers for the suggestions made. C 2012 Southeastern Council on Latin American Studies and Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 91 The Latin Americanist, December 2012 from the Brazilian public sphere and kept in this situation even at periods when the country experienced great economic growth. The objective of the present analysis is first to understand the considerable gap that remains between the extensive civil rights protections enshrined in the 1988 Constitution and the ability of social actors, particularly black Brazilians, to access them. This is based on long patterns of marginalization and exclusion which cannot be simply legislated out of existence. Drawing on a historical sociology, section 2 will show the main traits that prevailed in the Brazilian social formation, which made inequality not only inextricably bound to our conception of society, but also a natural phenomenon. In addition, it is important to analyze the place the black population occupied in this structural inequality. Although social inequality is not concentrated solely in the black population, one can say that blacks have had more difficulty than whites in climbing the social ladder since the end of slavery in 1888, though this never became a social issue, as we shall see below. Therefore, section 3 will highlight the elements that were present in the nation-building process that were not only powerful to obtain the consent of the blacks towards such unequal conditions for participation in the public sphere, but also did not allow the formation of a collective identity based on race. It will be emphasized that there were two powerful ideologies that reinforced or helped keep racial inequality devoid of any type of conflict in the public sphere: the ideology of a color blind society and the ideology of...

Dynamic nature of human rights: Rawls's critique of moral universalism

Human rights do not represent an absolute truth. Otherwise, they would represent ideology, which is contradictory to the basic idea of human rights itself. Consequently, there is a need for redefinition of the main presuppositions of modern conception of human rights represented in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This paper argues that Rawls's conception of human rights is significant for the refiguration of human rights. It represents the path towards postmodern idea of human rights and the recognition of difference.

Human Rights in Indian Culture: A Bird's Eye View

Of late, the expression, ‘human rights’ has gained a lot of significance in the modern society in the West as well as in the East. This article delves into the past, particularly into Indian history at different ages and attempts to explore whether such concepts prevailed earlier in India or whether they were alien to Indian culture. It brings out in a subtle way the concepts, which were nothing but the ‘human rights’ embedded in the age-old culture. Indian culture, which is an amalgamation of different faiths and religions and boasts of a written history of about five thousand years, imbibed and evolved human rights concepts long ago, long before the Universal Declaration of Human Rights or the European Renaissance. There are similarities and differences between the modern conception of human rights and that existing in Indian history.

ISSUES OF COMPATIBILITY HUMAN RIGHTS AND ISLAM: The experience of Egypt and Indonesia

This paper describes the plurality of Muslim responses to the modern conce­p­tion of human rights, drawing in particular on Muslim interpretations of key human rights issues in the dis­cour­se of human rights and Islam -women’s rights, reli­gious free­dom and minority rights, and corporal punishment- in Egypt and Indonesia. The case stu­dies of Egypt and Indonesia point to wide range of responses among Muslims to these issues, but also suggest that Islam is not incompatible with the modern conception of human rights. This paper argues that on the issues of human rights, Muslims do not share a single, monolithic stance. Instead, there is a variety of arguments based on various Islamic schools of thought and Islamic reli­gious groups. As a result, the issues of human rights and their implementation have elicited a wide range of responses among Muslims.

Condorcet and Modernity (review)

Reviewed by: Condorcet and Modernity Tili Boon Cuillé David Williams. Condorcet and Modernity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. xi + 306 pp. In Condorcet and Modernity, David Williams rescues one of the French Revolution's most intriguing yet neglected figures from the margins of Intellectual History and the shadow of Rousseau. Our view of Condorcet's contribution to the "art of government" (1) and the "architecture of modernity" (8) has been obscured by the profusion of treatises that he devoted to various social causes, by the rapidly escalating events of the French Revolution, and by critical studies dedicated to isolated aspects of his œuvre. Drawing on these diverse elements, Williams restores the portrait of Condorcet as visionary and pragmatist to its original splendor. In his introduction, Williams provides the reader with an overview of works dedicated to Condorcet since the late nineteenth century, an annotated bibliography placed at the disposal of those interested in pursuing the subject. His text spans the period from Louis XVI's accession to the throne in 1774 to Condorcet's death twenty years later. In the concise, compelling biography that constitutes his first chapter, Williams traces the development of Condorcet's social vision and political affinities, emphasizing the steadfastness of his stance on the shifting sands of the American and French Revolutions. We witness his triumphs and disappointments as he alternately catalyzed and was caught in the throes of revolution. Williams acquaints us with the origin and occasion of the accusations that continue to color Condorcet's reputation. He does not seek to justify but rather rationalizes Condorcet's voting record (which attracted criticism from Girondins and Montagnards alike) and occasional guilty silences (which have earned the criticism of historians), placing them in the context of the inexorable events that led to the death of the king. One of the rare Enlightenment philosophers to be equally committed to theory and practice, Condorcet proposed concrete solutions to the social problems he identified and means of garnering public support for [End Page 137] the progressive measures he promoted. Yet the chief merit of his writings proved to be their fatal flaw, for his contemporaries, like his readers, were frequently unable to see the forest for the trees. Moving with ease among his writings, Williams reveals Condorcet's contributions to our modern conception of human rights, secular society, education, legislation, and justice. He gives the reader a sense of the form and content of Condorcet's treatises yet synthesizes his ideas to prevent us from getting bogged down in his penchant for detail. Emphasizing the interconnections between Condorcet's philosophical convictions, mathematical insights, and views on public policy and social reform, Williams enables us at last to appreciate the integral nature of Condorcet's thought. The portrait of Condorcet that emerges under Williams's deft touch is one of a mathematical genius turned statesman whose formative influences include d'Alembert, Voltaire, and Turgot and who opposed the precepts and policies of Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Necker. Persuaded that human rights are natural and should be preserved by the laws of a just society, Condorcet firmly believed in scientific progress and human perfectibility. Yet the French legal code tended to reinforce rather than rectify the law of the strongest that set rich over poor, man over woman, master over slave, and Catholic over Protestant. Condorcet denied that according rights to Protestants, slaves, and women would pose a threat to society, but nor did he think that such reforms should be instigated over night. A gradualist as well as a pragmatist, Condorcet was convinced that universal education was the key to enlightenment and a prerequisite to universal rights. As the Revolution unfolded, he converted from his faith in an enlightened monarchy to faith in a republic of enlightened citizens. Education would enable the people not only to exercise their rights with responsibility but to recognize the pertinence of what Condorcet termed his "social mathematics." Condorcet applied probability theory and the theory of mean value to his efforts to reform public finance and public works and to promote free trade. His mathematical theories of voting and juries are still in effect today. He extended his sense of fair elections and fair trials to...

Culture, religion, and gender

This article explores the intersection of culture, religion, and gender in the context of international and constitutional human rights law. The clash between religious or cultural autonomy and gender equality is a pervasive problem for constitutional law, one that arises in connection with claims of immunity from gender equality provisions on the grounds of cultural or religious freedom. I will describe how the resulting clash has been addressed in international law and in the decisions of various constitutional courts and propose a theoretical basis for structuring the hierarchy of values to resolve this issue in a constitutional framework of human rights. Human rights doctrine, as we know it today, is a product of the shift from a religious to secular state culture at the time of the Enlightenment in eighteenth‐century Europe. The religious paradigm was replaced by secularism, communitarianism by individualism, and status by contract. The modern concept of human rights is the child of secularism. The historian, Yehoshua Arieli, writes: The secular character of the normative system embodied in human rights doctrine is essential to its comprehension. All its premises, values, concepts and purposes relate to the homocentric world and to ways of thought freed from transcendentalist premises and from the jurisdiction of religious authority. And so, the development of the doctrine of human rights is inseverably connected to the process of secularisation of

Universalizing Human Rights: The Role of Small States in the Construction of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

In the fifty years that have passed since the United Nations General Assembly approved the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR),' literally hundreds of books on the subject of human rights have come to fill the shelves of major university libraries in the United States and around the world. Human rights has claimed the attention of scholars in several disciplines, and the notion is alternatively approached as a philosophical idea, a legal concept, or a political project. Human rights readily finds a home in Western political philosophy, where theories of natural rights and social contract are well-anchored and help elaborate the modern concept of human rights. This concept has also been discussed in comparative philosophical frameworks.2 Human rights as a legal concept is part of the bedrock of contemporary international law, and neither legal scholarship

The International Protection of Human Rights and the Jewish Question (An Historical Survey)

To mark the twentieth anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations designated 1968 to be the International Year for Human Rights. The call went out to peoples and States all over the world to give particular thought then to the question of human rights and freedoms and contribute to their promotion and protection. Wherever the subject is raised, discussion will no doubt dwell upon the problems of the present and the future. I believe, however, that this is a suitable occasion to widen the scope, to cast a glance over the past, and to review the role of the Jews and of the “Jewish Question” in the nineteenth, and in the early years of the twentieth, century in instilling the concept of human rights into the conscience of mankind; it is also an opportunity to examine the part played by the Jews in the advancement of those rights at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920.From an historical point of view, the modern concept of human rights springs essentially from the rationalistic and cosmopolitan philosophy of the Enlightenment prevailing in the second half of the eighteenth century, and from the declarations framed at the end of that century in North America and, subsequently, in France during the Revolution. It was these declarations that laid the foundations of the democratic and liberal State. But the roots of the concept can be traced back to the Stoic philosophy of ancient Greece, to the teachings of the early Roman philosophers and lawyers and to the tenets of the medieval theologians; and it is, indeed, strange that only rarely have those engaged in the history of it made mention of the fact that ancient Hebrew religious thought, too, is concerned with the inherent dignity of Man and gives special prominence to the principle that all who are created in the image of God are equal—a principle clearly reflected in the status which the law of Moses assigns to “the stranger that sojourns among you”, and in the liberal attitude of that law towards the slave, as compared with that of other peoples.