Modern Chinese Buddhism Research Articles

Nenghai: A Perspective from Han-Tibetan Cultural Interaction

Abstract Nenghai 能海, a distinguished patriotic monk in the history of modern Chinese Buddhism, made remarkable contributions to the revitalization of Han Buddhism and the promotion of Han-Tibetan cultural exchanges. He journeyed to Xizang twice, studying under Khang Gsar Rinpoche 康萨仁波切 (1890–1941) and mastering both the exoteric and esoteric teachings of Buddhism. Upon his return to the Han regions of China, he founded “the Great Prajñāpāramitā Sect 大般若宗”, guiding disciples through Tibetan Lamrim and managing monasteries according to Han traditions, thereby adeptly propagating the integrated teachings of exoteric and esoteric Buddhism. During times of national turmoil and ethnic crises, he strove to revive the declining influence of Buddhism, fearlessly persevering against adversities. His efforts significantly contributed to preserving the integrity of Buddhist doctrines in China and fostering the diversity and prosperity of various Buddhist sects.

Animal Protection (husheng) and Ethical Eating Practices in Modern Chinese Buddhism

Abstract This article presents a historical and ethnographic examination of a range of practices connected with the teachings of non-violence and animal protection. I situate Buddhist-inspired vegetarianism in everyday practice rather than referring to clichéd ideas of “identity” and argue that practices connected with ethical eating and the “protection of sentient beings” are useful as a theoretical construct. Conceptualizing vegetarianism as practice can shed light on key aspects of the religious repertoire and the materialities of care that Buddhists can draw from as needed.

“Lamp and Candle”: Classical Chinese Imagery in Taixu’s Poetry

Taixu 太虛 (1890–1947), a prominent figure in modern Chinese Buddhism, produced a voluminous collection of poetry abounding with diverse classical Chinese images. Notably, the “lamp and candle” (dengzhu 燈燭) holds great significance, reflecting Taixu’s personal affinity with this imagery and an intimate connection to classical Chinese poetry. Acting as a potent Buddhist metaphor, it encapsulates multifaceted sentiments while also intertwining with other evocative images, such as the boat, the moon, and falling leaves. Symbolizing Taixu’s unwavering spirit, it represents his profound dedication to his craft. This article explores Taixu’s literary achievements as a poet by focusing on his adept utilization of “lamp and candle” imagery, complementing the study of his multifaceted and intricate identities. This detailed examination offers novel insights into Chinese literature and Buddhist studies, highlighting the interplay between spiritual practice and artistic expression.

The Subject’s Guide to the Realms of Karma

This article analyses the work of the Dharma Master Taixu, one of the leading figures of Chinese Buddhism in the Republican Period. Its analysis focuses on the meaning of concepts such as “human life,” “freedom,” and “karma” in Taixu’s seminal writings on the role of Buddhism in modern society, politics, and science from the 1920s and early 1930s. The succession of reading notes and reflections on these quintessential concepts in Taixu’s works aims at shedding some light on the relationship between subject and object, and the key question of the autonomy of the subject in modern Chinese Buddhism. Finally, by trying to illuminate the content of the ideas of subject and freedom in the work of this key figure, whose work is a foundational building block in the modernization of Buddhism in East Asia, the present discussion aims at casting some new light on the origins and theoretical foundations of contemporary Buddhism in Taiwan as well as in the broader Chinese cultural sphere.

The Reception of the Mantra of Light in Republican Period Chinese Buddhism

This paper examines the utilization of the mantra of light and its associated maṇḍala practices by Wang Hongyuan 王弘願 (1876–1937), a Chinese Buddhist during the Republican Period, and his adherents, which has not yet been noticed by previous scholars. With the import of esoteric Buddhist doctrines and practices from Japan, the mantra of light, which was a rarely used mantra in pre-modern China, gained renewed significance. This led to the widespread adoption of the ritual practices of this mantra by Wang Hongyuan and his surrounding Buddhist groups in early modern China. The rituals of this mantra were used as a supplement or substitute for near-death Pure Land practices. This paper presents Pure Land Buddhist practices intertwined with esoteric Buddhist elements or “esoteric” approaches to Pure Land rebirth in modern Chinese Buddhism which have been overlooked by previous scholars.

The Confluence of Karma and Hygiene: Vegetarianism with Renewed Meanings for Modern Chinese Buddhism

The Confluence of Karma and Hygiene: Vegetarianism with Renewed Meanings for Modern Chinese Buddhism

근대 중국불교의 신(新)유식 사상의 등장과 논쟁 재고

근대 중국불교의 신(新)유식 사상의 등장과 논쟁 재고

The Bodily Discourse in Modern Chinese Buddhism—Asceticism and Its Presentation in Buddhist Periodicals

This article focuses on accounts of bodily asceticism published in Buddhist periodicals in Republican China (1912–1949) in order to explore the mentality and motivation of publicly presenting this seemingly fanatic and backward tradition in an era marked by modernization. By zeroing in on practices of self-immolation, bodily mutilation, and blood writing, as presented in periodicals advocating either reform or preservation of Buddhist tradition, the article reveals that Buddhists with different visions for the modern form of Chinese Buddhism, despite their multifaceted responses, reached a consensus: ascetic practices were part of the tradition worthy of preservation and a strong testament of Buddhist morality. Arguments and eulogies about specific cases, preserved in these periodicals, made Buddhist asceticism an integral part of Chinese Buddhism’s modern transformation, which contributes to the rethinking of religion and modernity discourse.

Masculinity and Femininity: Comparing and Contrasting Two Modern Buddhist Movements in Taiwan, Foguang Shan and Ci Ji

This article examines how modern Chinese Buddhism has been influenced by its interactions with the modern world. For our purposes, ‘modern Chinese Buddhism’ refers to a form of what has become known in the West as ‘Engaged Buddhism,’ but in Chinese is known by titles that can be translated as ‘Humanistic Buddhism’ or ‘Buddhism for Human Life.’ This tradition was initiated on the Chinese mainland between the two World Wars by the monk Tai Xu (1890–1947). Its main branches have flourished in Taiwan, whence two of them have spread worldwide. The most successful, at least in numerical terms, has been Fo Guang Shan (the Buddha’s Light Mountain) and Ci Ji (the Buddhist Compassion and Relief Society), the former founded by a personal disciple of Tai Xu, Xing Yun, the latter founded by Zheng Yan. Both of them are now very old but remain powerful charismatic leaders.

Both Like and Unlike: Rebirth, Olfaction, and the Transspecies Imagination in Modern Chinese Buddhism

This essay considers the importance of the transspecies imagination for moral cultivation in contemporary Chinese Buddhism. Drawing on scriptural, theoretical, and fieldwork-based ethnographic data, it argues that olfaction—often considered the most “animalistic” of the human senses—is uniquely efficacious for inspiring imaginative processes whereby Buddhists train themselves to inhabit the perspectives of non-human beings. In light of Buddhist theories of rebirth, this means extending human-like status to animals and recognizing the “animal” within the human as well. Responding to recent trends in the Humanities calling for an expanded notion of ontological continuity between the human and non-human—notably inspired by critical animal studies, post-humanism, the new materialism, and the “ontological turn”—this essay contends that Buddhist cosmological ideas, like those that demand the cultivation of the transspecies imagination, present resources for moral reflection that can challenge and enrich current mainstream thinking about humanity’s relation to the nonhuman world.

Anarchy in the Pure Land: Reinventing the Cult of Maitreya in Modern Chinese Buddhism by Justin R. Ritzinger

Anarchy in the Pure Land: Reinventing the Cult of Maitreya in Modern Chinese Buddhism by Justin R. Ritzinger

중국 근현대 한전불교(漢傳佛敎)의 부흥과 실태

중국 근현대 한전불교(漢傳佛敎)의 부흥과 실태

Christianity as Model and Analogue in the Formation of the ‘Humanistic’ Buddhism of Tài X? and Hs?ng Yún

This article examines how modern Chinese Buddhism has been influenced by Christianity. For our purposes ‘modern Chinese Buddhism’ refers to a form of what has become known in the West as ‘Engaged Buddhism’, but in Chinese is known by titles which can be translated ‘Humanistic Buddhism’ or ‘Buddhism for Human Life’. This tradition was initiated on the Chinese mainland between the two World Wars by the monk Tài X?, and Part one of the article is devoted to him. Since the communist conquest of China, its main branches have flourished in Taiwan, whence two of them have spread worldwide. The most successful, at least in numerical terms, has been Fo Guang Shan (‘Buddha’s Light Mountain’), founded by a personal disciple of Tài X?, Hsing Yun, now very old, and it is on this movement that we concentrate in Parts two and three. We differentiate between conscious imitation and analogous development due to similar social circumstances, and show how Protestant Christianity and Roman Catholicism have had different effects. In Part four, we examine Fo Guang Shan as a missionary religion.

Buddhist building and the Buddhist revival in the work of Holmes Welch

ABSTRACTLike much of Holmes Welch’s work, the chapter ‘Building and Publishing’ in his The Buddhist Revival in China (1968) is a brief but evocative treatment of a vast topic. The book examines the history of Buddhism in China from the 1860s to 1949, and in this particular chapter he covers two main subject areas: the restoration and building of Buddhist monasteries, and the publishing and distribution of Buddhist printed materials. In this article I will examine in detail the arguments and evidence relating to Chinese Buddhist building and reconstruction that appear in the first section of this chapter and in other published scholarship by Welch. I argue that Welch had an insightful, but ultimately limited view of building and reconstruction in modern Chinese Buddhism, limited not only by the scarcity of resources available to him at the time, but also by his basic approach to the study of China. In looking at Buddhist building and reconstruction in modern China, Welch sought to paint a more accurate picture of Buddhist activity and enthusiasm, but in doing so revealed some of his deeply-seated assumptions about the nature of Chinese Buddhism.

Yi jie wei shi 以戒為師: theory and practice of monastic discipline in modern and contemporary Chinese Buddhism

ABSTRACTIn contemporary China, Buddhism is thriving in many forms and various milieus, a phenomenon that can be compared to the status of Buddhism during the Republican period. The resurgence of monastic discipline (jielü/vinaya) is one of the many common features characterizing these two movements. The present paper aims to shed light on modern and contemporary Chinese Buddhism by analysing the conception and practice of jielü in the strict sense of the word (i.e. the śrāvaka or hīnayāna vinaya, as well as the bodhisattva or mahāyāna vinaya); the codes and rules of the so-called ‘Chinese vinaya’ will be referred to only occasionally. The distinguishing features characterizing the modern vinaya revivals will be presented, focusing on their continuity throughout the twentieth century. Similarly to the recoveries of monastic discipline in the past, these modern processes of vinaya revival are based on the idea that since vinaya is the very foundation of the Buddhist dharma, it may help Buddhism to regenerate during an age of decadence.

The Wuchang ideal: Buddhist education and identity production in Republican China

ABSTRACTBuddhist education in China went through a fervent period of growth and significant changes during the 1920s and 1930s. Focusing on the pedagogical goals and agenda of the Wuchang Buddhist Studies Academy (Wuchang foxueyuan 武昌佛學院), this essay is a study of the convergence of identity and institution in this specific historical context. It begins with an institutional history of the academy, focusing specifically on the years between its founding in 1922 and Taixu’s departure in 1924. Despite its short life, the Wuchang Academy occupies a special place in the imagination of modern Chinese Buddhist identity. In the second part, I argue that the Wuchang Academy marked the emergence of a collective identity, the student-monks, which had a long-lasting impact on the practice of modern Chinese Buddhism.

Networks and Bridges: Nuns in the Making of Modern Chinese Buddhism

Buddhist women have been building modern Chinese Buddhism for over a century and have been instrumental in the globalization of Buddhism. This article focuses on how Chinese Buddhist nuns constructed new networks, and their role as “bridges” between eras, people, institutions, and regions in modern times. The first section contextualizes the “Buddhist Revival” in turn-of-the-century China, and highlights the reforms of Buddhist modernizer Taixu regarding Chinese Buddhist women, particularly in the field of education. The second section discusses several networks of Buddhist women spanning a time-period from the late nineteenth century to the present, including those of two eminent nuns, Longlian and Tongyuan. I also discuss some reasons for the evolution of Taiwan's flourishing order of nuns and highlight networks of Taiwan nuns connecting Taiwan, China, Japan, and Hong Kong. The mission of these nuns past and present has been education, the key to the development of the nuns’ order and to the flourishing of Chinese Buddhism today.

The Cultural Practices of Modern Chinese Buddhism: Attuning the Dharma – By Francesca Tarocco

The Cultural Practices of Modern Chinese Buddhism: Attuning the Dharma – By Francesca Tarocco

The Cultural Practices of Modern Chinese Buddhism: Attuning the Dharma, by Francesca Tarocco

The Cultural Practices of Modern Chinese Buddhism: Attuning the Dharma, by Francesca Tarocco

Heart of Buddha, Heart of China: The Life of Tanxu, a Twentieth Century Monk by James Carter (review)

Book Reviews 97 This richly documented and well-written book will be of interest to scholars of contemporary China, and also could be adopted for undergraduate and graduate courses in religion and/or Chinese society and culture. JEAN DEBERNARDI, University of Alberta Heart of Buddha, Heart of China: The Life of Tanxu, a Twentieth Century Monk JAMES CARTER. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. viii, 221 pages. ISBN 978-0-19-539885-4. US$29.90, £18.99 hardcover. Heart of Buddha, Heart of China is about the life of the Buddhist monk Tanxu 倓虛 (1875– 1963) and his efforts to strengthen Buddhism in North China in the first half of the twentieth century. Tanxu, not to be confused with the more famous Taixu 太虛 (1890–1947), entered monkhood relatively late in life, leaving his wife and children to join the Buddhist order. His name is remembered mainly for the construction of temples in the northern cities of Yingkou 營口, Harbin 哈爾濱, and Qingdao 青島, which had little previous Buddhist heritage and were developed rapidly under colonialist pressure from Europe and Japan. The chapters are arranged chronologically and Carter follows Tanxu’s life closely. He outlines Tanxu’s story before a historical background that is at least as important as the actions of Tanxu himself. Tanxu’s travels are the red thread which Carter uses to “explicate the patterns of Chinese history and society over the past century” (p. 3). For every move of Tanxu, Carter provides the historical background information that helps the readers understand the circumstances of his actions. The result is a vivid and accessible account of a monk’s life in a turbulent period in China’s history. With Tanxu we experience the Japanese occupation of North China in Harbin, see famine in Shaanxi 陝西, witness a bandit raid on a river at night, and get a glimpse of life in late-colonial Qingdao and Hong Kong 香港. Carter carefully gives only enough information to account for Tanxu’s actions; the background story never takes over or turns into a digression. Carter makes a special effort to interpret two elements in Tanxu’s life that a modern reader is likely to find problematic: Tanxu’s relationship with his family and the question in how far his activities abetted Japanese rule before and during the Sino-Japanese war. 98 Journal of Chinese Religions The first is a “traditional” problem in Buddhism. The tension between a life dedicated to religion and one’s family ties has been with Buddhism since its inception. It is thematized in early Indian texts such as the Vessantara Jātaka and addressed in later Chinese Buddhist customs, such as asking one’s parents’ permission before receiving ordination. The second problem, that of Buddhist collaboration under colonial rule, is quite new and owes its existence to our changed perception of the role of Buddhism in society. At the end of the Ming dynasty, Confucian literati and officials unwilling to serve the Manchu regime could opt out of public life and become Buddhist monks. It was widely seen that by entering the Buddhist order one removed oneself from the realm and demands of politics. Modernity affords no such comforts. The biographies of Chinese monks under Japanese—or indeed Communist—rule are now increasingly questioned as to the ethical implications of their “accommodation” with the new rulers. With regard to Tanxu, Carter treats both dilemmas in his biography tactfully and sensibly, addressing them with respect for the complex web of motivations and events that makes up not only Tanxu’s life, but our own. The book is mainly geared to readers interested in history; students of modern Chinese Buddhism or religious culture can choose to be delighted at an account of a hitherto neglected Buddhist leader in a hitherto neglected region in China, or to bemoan the lack of references to primary and secondary literature beyond the absolute minimum. This is a carefully managed book and it seems there was a conscious effort to eliminate all information outside a narrow focus on Tanxu and political history. Unmentioned go the many studies of modern Chinese Buddhism and religion that have appeared in recent years (e.g. Goossaert’s work on temple culture)1 or...