Life Cycle Cost Model Research Articles

A comprehensive quantitative lifecycle cost and environmental impact analysis model for computing infrastructure

This paper presents a comprehensive quantitative model for quantitative assessment of the lifecycle costs and environmental impacts of computing infrastructure, with a focus on internet data centers (IDCs) and high-performance computing (HPC) facilities. The key innovation lies in the integration of interdisciplinary cost evaluation and carbon emission methods for the establishment of this quantitative model. This framework, which outlines key cost components and carbon emission factors, enables the calculation of total costs, electricity expenses, and greenhouse gas emissions throughout the lifecycle of infrastructure. With IDCs as a case study, the research clarifies the intricate cost structure associated with equipment procurement, energy usage, land acquisition, and operational expenses. This paper provides an in-depth understanding of the cost structure and environmental impact of computing infrastructure in support of sustainable decision-making in its development.•Based on established cost estimation methods, such as Lifecycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) and the Analogous Estimating Method, this study examines costs across construction and operation phases.•The Emission Factor Method is used to quantify environmental impact, emphasizing the significance of regional energy mix and power usage effectiveness (PUE).

Multi-index evaluation on reinforcement programs for frame structures based on life cycle theory and time-varying reliability

Under the mandates of economic and environmental sustainability, the consideration of reinforcement engineering must extend beyond mere enhancement effects and short-term project costs. As a long-term engineering activity, reinforcement significantly impacts urban economies and environments. Although extensive research has evaluated the costs or environmental impacts of reinforcement engineering based on the whole life cycle theory, existing studies often focus on single indicators without adequately integrating them with other domains. Using a reinforced concrete frame structure as a case study, this paper develops a combined evaluation decision-making model integrating the Analytic Hierarchy Process for subjective assessment and an enhanced Rough Set method for objective evaluation. This model comprehensively assesses the seismic performance, economic costs, and environmental impacts of various reinforcement strategies. The results indicate that the combined strategy of enlarging column sections and carbon fiber reinforced polymer strengthening beams performs best in seismic performance, long-term economic benefits, and environmental impacts. Grounded in practical projects, this study adjusts the whole life cycle cost model to better align with engineering maintenance realities and introduces Rough Set theory to address deficiencies in objective indicator weighting. This research offers insights and guidance for leveraging information technology in resolving multi-criteria evaluation decision-making challenges in reinforcement engineering solutions.

Synergism of floated paperboard sludge cake /sewage sludge for maximizing biomethane yield and biochar recovery from digestate: A step towards circular economy

Anaerobic digestion of floated paperboard sludge (PS) cake suffers from volatile fatty acids (VFAs) accumulation, nutrient unbalanced condition, and generation of digestate with a risk of secondary pollution. To overcome these drawbacks, sewage sludge (SS) was added to PS cake for biogas recovery improvement under a co-digestion process followed by the thermal treatment of solid fraction of digestate for biochar production. Batch experimental assays were conducted at different SS:PS mixing ratios of 70:30, 50:50, 30:70, and 20:80 (w/w), and their anaerobic co-digestion performances were compared to the mono-digestion systems at 35 ± 0.2 °C for 45 days. The highest methane yield (MY) of 241.68 ± 14.81 mL/g CODremoved was obtained at the optimum SS:PS ratio of 50:50 (w/w). This experimental condition was accompanied by protein, carbohydrate, and VFA conversion efficiencies of 47.3 ± 3.2%, 46.8 ± 3.2%, and 56.3 ± 3.8%, respectively. The synergistic effect of SS and PS cake encouraged the dominance of Bacteroidota (23.19%), Proteobacteria (49.65%), Patescibacteria (8.12%), and Acidovorax (12.60%) responsible for hydrolyzing the complex organic compounds and converting the VFAs into biomethane. Further, the solid fraction of digestate was subjected to thermal treatment at a temperature of 500 °C for 2.0 h, under an oxygen-limited condition. The obtained biochar had a yield of 0.48 g/g dry digestate, and its oxygen-to-carbon (O/C), carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N), and carbon-to-phosphorous (C/P) ratios were 0.55, 10.23, and 16.42, respectively. A combined anaerobic co-digestion/pyrolysis system (capacity 50 m3/d) was designed based on the COD mass balance experimental data and biogenic CO2 market price of 22 USD/ton. This project could earn profits from biogas (12,565 USD/yr), biochar (6641 USD/yr), carbon credit (8014 USD/yr), and COD shadow price (6932 USD/yr). The proposed project could maintain a payback period of 6.60 yr. However, further studies are required to determine the associated life cycle cost model that is useful to validate the batch experiment assumptions.

Quantitative Evaluation Method of Full‐Cycle Life of Hydrogen Production by Electricity Considering Line Electrothermal Coupler

This study introduces a quantitative evaluation method for the lifecycle of electric hydrogen production in microgrids, considering line electric thermal couplers. By analyzing the operational mechanism and benefits of hydrogen production through residual electricity, we systematically evaluated the cost‐effectiveness of Proton Exchange Membrane electrolytic hydrogen production. A comprehensive lifecycle cost model was constructed, including equipment investment, maintenance, operating costs, and line thermocouple failure costs. By combining hydrogen sales, electricity consumption, new energy subsidies, and delayed construction benefits, a lifecycle benefit model was developed to measure economic performance. Experimental results showed that under a 5% power outage rate, the hydrogen distribution network has a short investment payback period, high production, and significant economic benefits, reaching 23.19 million US dollars by the sixth year. This study provides valuable insights for economic decision‐making in electric hydrogen microgrids.

Reliability-Based Preventive Maintenance Strategy for Subsea Control System

The subsea control system, a pivotal element of the subsea production system, plays an essential role in collecting production data and real-time operational monitoring, crucial for the consistent and stable output of offshore oil and gas fields. The increasing demand for secure offshore oil and gas extraction underscores the necessity for advanced reliability modeling and effective maintenance strategies for subsea control systems. Given the enhanced reliability of subsea equipment due to technological advancements, resulting in scarce failure data, traditional reliability modeling methods reliant on historical failure data are becoming inadequate. This paper proposes an innovative reliability modeling technique for subsea control systems that integrates a Wiener degradation model affected by random shocks and utilizes the Copula function to compute the joint reliability of components and their backups. This approach considers the unique challenges of the subsea environment and the complex interplay between components under variable loads, improving model accuracy. This study also examines the effects of imperfect maintenance on degradation paths and introduces a holistic lifecycle cost model for preventive maintenance (PM), optimized against reliability and economic considerations. Numerical simulations on a Subsea Control Module demonstrate the effectiveness of the developed models.

Optimal Sizing and Life-cycle Cost Modelling of Hydraulic Capsule Pipelines

Estimation of the total cost is essential for the planning and the designing of pipelines in a cost-effective way. As a result, the total cost modelling could go beyond the established objectives of least-cost design and optimization. This study incorporates a design methodology for pipelines transporting spherical capsules, which have variant sizes and densities. A methodology has been developed to determine the optimal size and lifetime of pipelines transporting solid–liquid mixtures (Capsule Flow). The methodology includes a model for the prediction of various life-cycle costs. The methodology provides a closed form solution to predict the optimal pipe diameter corresponding to the least total cost. Such solutions are obtained for different life-cycle costs, of which the one associated with minimum annual total cost provides the lifetime. The developed methodology has been used to obtain the optimal diameter of a pipeline for a practical case. The study reveals the interrelationship between the optimal pipe diameter and the corresponding minimum total cost.

Enhancing Economic Efficiency: Analyzing Transformer Life-Cycle Costs in Power Grids

The transformer is a fundamental piece of equipment for power grids. The analysis and optimization of their life-cycle costs are of great importance to reinforce the economic efficiency of electrical networks. This paper constructs a comprehensive transformer life-cycle cost (LCC) model by fusing life-cycle cost theory with relevant transformer expenditure. It proceeds to examine the life-cycle cost aspects of the transformer, delving into its cost dynamics under various influencing factors, establishing interconnections between these factors and analyzing the cost relationship. By employing MATLAB software (Matlab 2021a) along with the whale optimization algorithm (WOA) this paper optimizes the objective function. Through this, it establishes the LCC model for 20 power transformers, obtaining the optimal objective function curve and the maximum value for LCC optimization of the transformer. Unlike previous research, this study adds a detailed analysis of several factors that influence LCC. At the same time, it develops a more complete, scientific and rational LCC optimization model. An illustrative example validates the model and the superiority of the whale optimization algorithm. The algorithm not only shows its scientific basis and superiority, but also serves as a guiding mechanism for LCC management in transformer engineering practices. Ultimately, it emerges as a fundamental tool to improve the efficiency of power grid asset management.

Technical–Economic Analysis for Ammonia Ocean Transportation Using an Ammonia-Fueled Carrier

This study performed a technical–economic analysis for ship-based ammonia transportation to investigate the feasibility of international ammonia transportation. Ammonia is considered to be a vital hydrogen carrier, so the international trade in ammonia by ship will considerably increase in the future. This study proposed three scenarios for transporting ammonia from the USA, Saudi Arabia, and Australia to South Korea and employed an 84,000 m3 class ammonia carrier. Not only traditional very low sulfur fuel oil (VLSFO)/marine diesel oil (MDO) but also LNG and ammonia fuels were considered as propulsion and power generation fuels in the carrier. A life-cycle cost (LCC) model consisting of capital expenditure (CAPEX) and operational expenditure (OPEX) was employed for the cost estimation. The results showed that the transportation costs depend on the distance. The unit transportation cost from the USA to South Korea was approximately three times higher than that of Australia to South Korea. Ammonia fuel yielded the highest costs among the fuels investigated (VLSFO/MGO, LNG, and ammonia). When using ammonia fuel, the unit transportation cost was approximately twice that when using VLSFO/MDO. The fuel costs occupied the largest portion of the LCC. The unit transportation costs from Australia to South Korea were 23.6 USD/ton-NH3 for the LVSFO/MDO fuel case, 31.6 USD/ton-NH3 for the LNG fuel case, and 42.9 USD/ton-NH3 for the ammonia fuel case. This study also conducted a sensitivity analysis to investigate the influence of assumptions, including assumed parameters.

Particle swarm optimization method applied in total life cycle materials allocation of electricity engineering projects in the green and low-carbon supply chain

Abstract Power grid enterprises face the problem of unbalanced supply and demand of power materials and unequal distribution; intelligent allocation of power materials can optimize the distribution and use of power resources through advanced technology and algorithms to ensure the efficient use of energy and stable supply. In this paper, the whole life cycle cost model of power supply chain is constructed and solved by improved particle swarm optimization (PSO). This algorithm combines the advantages of standard PSO and genetic algorithm (GA), avoids their disadvantages effectively, and realizes the effect of complementary advantages. This paper proposes using the sum of the costs associated with warehousing, transportation, and service penalties in the supply chain of electrical power projects as the objective function, thereby achieving the goal of optimal supply chain costs. In this study, the improved PSO algorithm is used to optimize the objective function, and the optimization results are compared with those of standard PSO algorithm and GA, revealing that its convergence is superior to the other two algorithms. Considering the influence of different factors on the cost, the superiority of the improved PSO algorithm is further verified.

Life cycle cost modelling using 6D BIM in construction: A comparative study

Life Cycle Costing (LCC) and Building Information Modelling (BIM) are among the important current trends in the construction industry. LCC contributes to the objective management and measurement of costs during the entire lifetime of a building and BIM represents one of the digitalization efforts related to the Construction 4.0 initiative. Because life cycle cost modelling using 6D BIM has the potential to bring significant positive effects such as cost savings and reduced environmental burden, this paper aims to study the development of this concept in the Czech Republic and Austria. The legislative environment, the actual usage of LCC and BIM in practice, as well as problems faced by the Czech and Austrian construction industries, are discussed in this comparative study. The results show that the practical level of use is still relatively low in both countries, yet specific differences were identified, for example those related to the definition of legislative requirements and the availability of standards and specifications.

Life-cycle cost estimation of a building structure: An example of partition walls

Abstract The growing pressure to optimise construction investment costs from the life-cycle perspective inevitably leads to efforts to seek new solutions that will facilitate informed decision-making in the early stages of the construction project. Awareness of the importance of considering future operation and demolition costs emphasises the shortcomings related to the possibility of making accurate predictions/estimations of such costs, which will become apparent in the future. To address this research gap, an innovative approach of life-cycle cost modelling on the level of individual structures of the building is presented. The model provides users with information on the costs of available technical solutions resulting from the requirements of the investor at a specific stage of the construction project. In this way, it helps investors optimise their building projects and to find the most economical solutions. Specifically, this model is assembled for the purpose of selecting a suitable partition wall and, therefore, it takes into consideration specific characteristics relating to this particular type of structure. The results indicate diversity in partition wall structural design variants at the early stage of the project. Since the ability to influence future costs decreases as the project progresses, the model allows capturing LCC perspective even if only a construction study is available without more detailed technical and economic information. The presented model aims to contribute to the higher performance of construction projects in the planning phase from the perspective of LCC and investors’/owners’ point of view.

Optimizing Energy Efficiency: An Integrated Life Cycle Costing Approach for Centralized Cooling Plants

Gas District Cooling (GDC) is an emerging technology utilizing natural gas-based systems for efficient district-scale cooling. This study develops a comprehensive Life Cycle Costing (LCC) model integrating capital expenditure (CAPEX) and operational expenditure (OPEX) for Thermal Energy Storage (TES) and Electrical Chillers (ECs) within GDC plants. Validated through a case study at an academic institute's GDC plant in Malaysia, the model assesses breakeven scenarios, revealing that project feasibility is optimal under case-II conditions, emphasizing the importance of operational efficiency for sustained economic viability throughout the plant's lifespan. These insights enhance understanding of financial considerations and investment strategies for adopting GDC technology in urban cooling applications, highlighting the need for strategic planning and lifecycle management to optimize economic performance and support broader sustainable development goals. Ongoing research will further refine LCC models, advancing the economic competitiveness of GDC as a key component of sustainable urban cooling solutions.

Techno-economic assessment of offshore wind and hybrid wind–wave farms with energy storage systems

Ocean renewables (such as offshore wind and wave) are abundant and essential energy resources for supporting future emission-free targets. However, their energy intermittency and high cost have hindered commercialization and wide-scale implementations of these ocean energy technologies. This paper focuses on both issues and aims to increase the dispatchability of ocean energy farms by investigating the potential of a hybrid wind and wave energy platform with energy storage systems (ESS). This research introduces an innovative method to assess the necessary ESS capacity for offshore renewable energy farms, ensuring energy dispatchability to the local demand. In addition, the key criteria and the economic feasibility of deploying ESS in offshore energy farms are also discussed. A life-cycle cost model is presented that quantitatively compares different farm configurations, specifically a standalone offshore wind farm and a hybrid configuration incorporating both wind and wave generation systems. The results indicate that the combined wind and wave energy farm significantly reduces the ESS requirement and provides competitive lifecycle costs compared to the stand-alone wind energy farm, though the amount of these benefits vary on the local resource characteristics. The quantitative assessment presented in this study also provides realistic and practical justifications for combined energy farms that complement statistical conclusions derived from variability indexes in previous studies.

Decision-making processes on sustainable packaging options in the European food sector

Food packaging improves shelf life and allows longer transportation distances in global food supply chains, but it is also responsible for huge volumes of waste. The transition to sustainable packaging by food companies has often been slow and inconsistent. How decisions on (sustainable) packaging are made within companies in the food sector remains mostly opaque to research. To explore the decision-making process and identify barriers for cleaner, more resource efficient food packaging, we carried out 17 interviews in four European countries across different food sectors using the theoretical decision-making process of Nutt (1984) as an analytical framework. Through qualitative content analysis, we found that decision-making processes often lack structure and extend over long stretches of time. Frequently, they are initiated in response to packaging material manufacturers or suppliers. Switching to more sustainable packaging often implies costly investments into new machinery. Economic sustainability takes precedence over ecological sustainability. We recommend companies move to life-cycle cost models for packaging decisions, commit to mono- and other recyclable materials, and establish structured decision-making processes with clear cut-off criteria so as to streamline implementation decisions. Our results further support a call for progressive legislation towards a circular economy in the packaging sector.

Assessing life cycle cost and environmental impact for office building construction in Saudi Arabia

ABSTRACT The continuous growth of the construction sector in Saudi Arabia will result in social, environmental, and economic implications. To this end, this study focuses on selecting optimal structural and external envelope systems for an office building in Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia. Our research’s novelty lies in the fusion of life cycle cost (LCC) and life cycle impact (LCI) assessment models to optimize structural and envelope choices, a methodology that has real-world applications for the sustainable construction of office buildings. The study findings offer a substantial contribution to the evolving field of sustainable construction practices by enhancing cost-efficiency and environmental performance. The proposed models evaluate different external envelope materials, including concrete masonry unit (CMU), insulated CMU, limestone cladding, autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC), three types of glazing (double, triple, and Nanogel), and two structural systems (steel frame and reinforced concrete frame), considered over a 30-year lifespan. Our methodology integrates advanced tools, including Autodesk Revit for precise building modeling, Design Builder software for energy consumption simulations, and One Click LCA software for life cycle assessments. The LCC analysis reveals the most cost-effective option as reinforced concrete with insulated CMU and triple glazing, saving 5.6% or 11,962,496 Saudi Riyals compared to the baseline. Moreover, insulated CMU with Nanogel glazing demonstrates a remarkable 22% annual energy savings, equivalent to 397,469 Saudi Riyals. The proposed framework provides facility managers with comprehensive guidelines for updating conventional office buildings into sustainable ones.

Importance-based system cost management and failure risk analysis for different phases in life cycle

System life cycle can be divided into four phases: the production phase, the operation phase, maintenance phase and the end-of-life phase. Component failure leads to the different variable costs in different phases. Existing studies have investigated systems from a cost-effectiveness perspective of the operation and maintenance stage, which may not be holistic. Furthermore, the expected failure cost can be used to evaluate the failure risk. In this paper, a generalized system cost for different phases is analyzed in life cycle, then a risk optimization is studied based on an improvement importance. Firstly, a comprehensive life cycle cost model is proposed. Specifically, the operation and maintenance costs due to the different types of component failures are discussed, respectively. Besides, a specific selection method for performing end-of-life in case of component failure is given using the recovery importance. Secondly, an improvement importance is proposed to optimize system reliability under invariant resources. Thirdly, the specific process of the failure risk under limited resource using improvement importance is analyzed. Finally, the proposed methods are verified using two applications, and a discussion on unlimited resources for risk optimization is given.

Costs and benefits of constructed wetlands for meeting new water quality standards from China's wastewater treatment plants

To preserve and restore water ecosystems, China has implemented increasingly stringent emissions standards (Weak, Moderate, and Ambitious) for wastewater treatment plants and constructed wetlands (CWs) are an effective means of improving tailwater standards. We used Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costing models to quantify the economic and environmental costs and benefits of upgrading drainage standards through CW for 8054 WWTPs in China, and calculated their benefit–cost ratios (BCR). Two land-use scenarios were considered according to whether cultivated land was eligible for use by CWs. The construction phase was the greatest contributor to both environmental impact and cost. BCR were 3.53, 2.49, and 2.39 when cultivated land was ineligible for CW construction and 3.13, 2.16, and 2.20 when eligible. This provides an evidence base for decision-makers to select appropriate emission standards and whether to include cultivated land in the planning of CWs.

Detailed mapping of technical capacities and economics potential of offshore wind energy: A case study in South-eastern Australia

Australia has significant offshore wind resources that can support ever-increasing power demand and hence provide a long-term contribution to the net-zero target by 2050. Although some offshore wind farm projects are proposed in Australia, the industry is not mature enough to justify the benefits and display economic opportunities. More specifically, the techno-economic analysis of offshore wind energy has not been systematically mapped in Australia. Therefore, the investigation of the spatial variation of technical feasibility and economic potential of offshore wind is vital to identify the potential regions and to develop strategies for future offshore wind farm developments in Australia. This paper presents detailed mappings of the techno-economic potential of offshore wind energy in Victoria-Tasmania’s exclusive economic zone. Offshore wind energy resources are assessed in the paper in terms of energy availability and variability and the feasibility of various offshore wind technologies is investigated, including turbines, foundation types and transmission topologies. In addition, the high-fidelity life-cycle cost models and two innovative evaluation matrices are developed to assess the economic potential of offshore energy farms in South-eastern Australia. The impact of local power system regulation costs and future carbon prices on the viability of offshore wind is also investigated in this paper. It is concluded that the detailed mapping approach and analysis in the paper can provide a systematic tool for industry partners, investors and policymakers at the pre-planning stage of developing offshore renewable energy systems.

Life cycle optimization framework of charging–swapping integrated energy supply systems for multi-type vehicles

The energy supply infrastructure is an important guarantee for vehicle electrification. Its economy, service capability and grid friendliness are critical factors drawing wide attention. To reduce the cost of energy storage devices that alleviate the high-power grid impact from fast charging station, this study proposes a novel energy supply system configuration that integrates fast charging for passenger vehicles and battery swapping for heavy trucks, and discharges the large-capacity swapping batteries to support fast charging. The influences of station configurations, including in-station batteries, charging and swapping equipment on the system economy, service quality, and grid capacity demand are revealed through system modeling and analysis. The impact of the charging time on battery degradation during operation is also explored. Moreover, a life cycle optimization framework for the charging–swapping integrated system is formulated, together with the complementary control strategy that realizes bidirectional energy coupling of fast charging and battery swapping loads. In this framework, the battery swapping service model is established to quantify the service quality; the electrochemical mechanism model is used to evaluate the battery degradation during charging and discharging processes; and the life cycle cost model is established by integrating the investment and operation costs of the energy supply system. On this basis, the design and control variables are collaboratively optimized towards the maximal life cycle benefits. Based on the actual load characteristics of charging and swapping stations, a comparative study is performed for the proposed operation scheme and the general service quality-prioritized scheme. The obtained results show that the maximum station power is reduced by more than 0.6 MW, and the total life cycle cost of the energy supply system is reduced by over 1 million RMB under the proposed scheme, verifying its notable effect of life cycle economy improvement.

Life-Cycle Cost Model of High-Speed Railway Considering Carbon Emissions

Life-Cycle Cost Model of High-Speed Railway Considering Carbon Emissions