Characteristics Of Mixed Layer Research Articles

Langmuir turbulence in suspended kelp farms

This study investigates the influence of suspended kelp farms on ocean mixed layer hydrodynamics in the presence of currents and waves. We use the large eddy simulation method, where the wave effect is incorporated by solving the wave-averaged equations. Distinct Langmuir circulation patterns are generated within various suspended farm configurations, including horizontally uniform kelp blocks and spaced kelp rows. Intensified turbulence arises from the farm-generated Langmuir circulation, as opposed to the standard Langmuir turbulence observed without a farm. The creation of Langmuir circulation within the farm is attributed to two primary factors depending on farm configuration: (i) enhanced vertical shear due to kelp frond area density variability, and (ii) enhanced lateral shear due to canopy discontinuity at lateral edges of spaced rows. Both enhanced vertical and lateral shear of streamwise velocity, representing the lateral and vertical vorticity components, respectively, can be tilted into downstream vorticity to create Langmuir circulation. This vorticity tilting is driven by the Craik–Leibovich vortex force associated with the Stokes drift of surface gravity waves. In addition to the farm-generated Langmuir turbulence, canopy shear layer turbulence is created at the farm bottom edge due to drag discontinuity. The intensity of different types of turbulence depends on both kelp frond area density and the geometric configuration of the farm. The farm-generated turbulence has substantial consequences for nutrient supply and kelp growth. These findings also underscore the significance of the presence of obstacle structures in modifying ocean mixed layer characteristics.

Recent large-scale mixed layer and vertical stratification maxima changes

The warming climate is causing a strengthening of ocean stratification. Ocean stratification, in turn, has significant impacts on physical, biogeochemical and ecological processes, such as ocean circulation, ventilation, air-sea interactions, nutrient fluxes, primary productivity and fisheries. How these processes are affected in detail by changing stratification still remains uncertain and are likely to vary locally. Here, we investigate the state and trend of different parameters characterizing the stratification of the global upper-ocean which can be derived from Argo profiles for the period 2006-2021. Among those parameters are mixed layer depth, magnitude and depth of the vertical stratification maximum. The summertime stratification maximum has increased in both hemispheres, respectively. During wintertime, the stratification maximum has intensified in the Northern Hemisphere, while changes in the Southern Hemisphere have been relatively small. Comparisons to mixed layer characteristics show that a strengthening stratification is mainly accompanied by a warming and freshening of the mixed layer. In agreement with previous observational studies, we find a large-scale mixed layer deepening that regionally contributes to the increasing stratification. Globally, the vertical stratification maximum strengthens by 7-8% and the mixed layer deepens by 4 m during 2006-2021. This hints to an ongoing de-coupling of the surface ocean from the ocean interior. The investigated changes can help determine the origin of existing model-observation discrepancies and improve predictions on climate change impact on upper-ocean ecology and biogeochemistry.

Effect of recess length on flow dynamics in gas-centered liquid-swirl coaxial injectors under supercritical conditions

The flow dynamics in gas-centered, liquid-swirl coaxial injectors at supercritical conditions are comprehensively investigated using the large eddy simulation technique. This class of injectors has been used in many high-performance propulsion and power-generation systems. Gaseous oxygen is axially injected into the center post of the injector at a temperature of 687.7 K, while liquid kerosene is tangentially introduced into the coaxial annulus at a temperature of 492.2 K. The operating pressure of 25.3 MPa substantially exceeds the thermodynamic critical pressures of oxygen and kerosene. Detailed flow structures and mixing layer characteristics are examined, with special attention to the effect of the distance between the end of the center post and the entrance of the taper region, that is, the recess length. Six different cases ranging from no recess to fully recessed are investigated. Various controlling mechanisms of the injector flow dynamics, including recirculating motion near the fuel injection slit, shear-layer instabilities in the recess region, and vortex expansion and merging in the taper region are considered. Dominant frequencies of the axial and azimuthal instability modes are characterized and compared to empirical correlations. Dynamic analyses are conducted for the overall computational domain, as well as individual regions. Among the six cases, only the fully recessed Case 1 exhibits strong pressure oscillations over the entire injector, which are found to be closely related to the longitudinal acoustic oscillations in the center post. In cases with partial or no recess, Case 2 with a long recess achieves the best mixing, and Case 6 with zero recess leads to the worst mixing.

Seasonal characteristics of sea breeze and thermal internal boundary layer over Indian east coast region

Characteristics of the sea breeze and thermal internal boundary layer (TIBL) during different seasons are studied using mini micropulse lidar (MPL) at Kattankulathur (12.83° N, 80.04° E, 45 m) and radiosonde and surface meteorological observations at Meenambakkam (13.0° N, 80.06° E, 16 m) during the period January 2016–June 2018 over Chennai, in the Indian east coast region. Study of the sea breeze is important because it is one of the main factors responsible for most of the convective rainfall during summer monsoon season over Chennai. The sea breeze onset occurs from morning ~ 07:00 IST to late afternoon during winter and pre-monsoon seasons whereas it occurs from mid-morning ~ 09:00 IST to late evening ~ 19:00 IST during the summer monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. The cessation of the sea breeze lies between the late evening ~ 18:00 IST and early morning ~ 04:00 IST on the next day. Sea breeze prevails for the longest (shortest) duration during pre-monsoon (summer monsoon) season. The temperature, moisture, refractivity, and aerosol profiles show double mixed layer characteristics indicating TIBL as the first layer and convective boundary layer (CBL) or residual layer (RL) as the second layer. TIBL occurs throughout the year with maximum occurrence during pre-monsoon season. It varies from 0.2 to 0.8 km (0.4–1.0 km) with peak at 0.4 km (0.6 km) over Meenambakkam (Kattankulathur). TIBL height is found to be at altitude ~ 0.54 ± 0.16 km and 0.62 ± 0.13 km at Meenambakkam and Kattankulathur, respectively. TIBL shows a weak seasonal variation with maximum height during winter and minimum height during summer in contrast to the seasonal variation of the CBL.

Experimental Investigation of the Nozzle Roughness Effect on the Flow Parameters in the Mixing Layer of an Axisymmetric Subsonic High-Velocity Jet

The paper presents the results of an experimental investigation of the mixing layer parameters in the initial regions of transonic jets issuing from convergent nozzles with different internal roughness at the same Mach number in the jet core. It is shown that the mixing layer characteristics, namely, the radial profiles of the measured total pressure and the r.m.s. total pressure fluctuations, are self-similar in nature at distances greater than 1.5 of the nozzle exit diameter from the exit. The possibility of applicating nozzles with an increased degree of the internal surface roughness in investigating high-velocity jet flows is shown.

Simulation of atmospheric dispersion of airborne effluent releases at a tropical coastal site under sea-breeze circulation and internal boundary layer development

In this study the impact of land–sea breeze circulation and internal boundary layer (IBL) on the atmospheric dispersion of airborne effluent releases at the tropical coastal site Kalpakkam is simulated using mesoscale model WRF and Lagrangian particle dispersion model FLEXPART. Simulations with WRF are conducted for typical days in different seasons, i.e., 3 May 2011 (summer), 20 Sep 2010 and 20 Jun 2011 (southwest monsoon). Two K-based non-local turbulence closures (YSU, ACM) and two TKE-based local closures (MYNN, MYJ) in WRF are tested for simulating the sea breeze and IBL. Observations from a 50-m meteorological tower, GPS Sonde, and a Doppler SODAR are used for validation. Simulations indicate that the synoptic flow largely influences the characteristics of the sea breeze at the site. Results show that the sea breeze is more predominant with early onset and it is characterized by deep inland penetration, strong horizontal and vertical winds and is associated with formation of a deep IBL relative to monsoon with opposing large-scale flow. The YSU non-local diffusion scheme and the higher order local TKE closure (MYNN) simulated the sea breeze and IBL characteristics in good agreement with observations. Dispersion simulations with a hypothetical tracer release using FLEXPART showed relatively high ground-level concentrations during IBL formation in the daytime and during stable off-shore flow condition in the morning time. The coupled mesoscale dispersion model could simulate the plume trajectory and buildup of concentrations during sea-breeze time by realistically simulating the winds and mixed-layer characteristics at the coastal site.

The ocean mixed layer under Southern Ocean sea-ice: Seasonal cycle and forcing

The oceanic mixed-layer is the gateway for the exchanges between the atmosphere and the ocean; in this layer all hydrographic ocean properties are set for months to millennia. A vast area of the Southern Ocean is seasonally capped by sea-ice, which alters the characteristics of the ocean mixed-layer. The interaction between the ocean mixed-layer and sea-ice plays a key role for water-mass transformation, the carbon cycle, sea-ice dynamics, and ultimately for the climate as a whole. However, the structure and characteristics of the under-ice mixed-layer are poorly understood due to the sparseness of in-situ observations and measurements. In this study, we combine distinct sources of observations to overcome this lack in our understanding of the Polar Regions. Working with Elephant Seal-derived observations, ship-based and Argo float observations, we describe the seasonal cycle of the ocean mixed-layer characteristics and stability of the ocean mixed-layer over the Southern Ocean and specifically under sea-ice. Mixed-layer heat and freshwater budgets are used to investigate the main forcing mechanisms of the mixed-layer seasonal cycle. The seasonal variability of sea surface salinity and temperature are primarily driven by surface processes, dominated by sea-ice freshwater flux for the salt budget, and by air-sea flux for the heat budget. Ekman advection, vertical diffusivity and vertical entrainment play only secondary roles.Our results suggest that changes in regional sea-ice distribution and annual duration, as currently observed, widely affect the buoyancy budget of the underlying mixed-layer, and impact large-scale water-mass formation and transformation with far reaching consequences for ocean ventilation. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Mechanisms and predictability of multiyear ecosystem variability in the North Pacific

AbstractAleutian Low variations provide vorticity, buoyancy, and heat‐flux forcing to the North Pacific Ocean, which in turn cause changes in ocean circulation, mixed layer characteristics and sea ice coverage. In this process the white noise atmospheric characteristics are integrated dynamically and thermodynamically to generate red noise ocean spectra. Using the Community Earth System Model (version 1.0.3) we study the resulting biogeochemical and ecosystem responses in the North Pacific. We find that ocean dynamical variables have an impact on the tendencies of key nutrients and biological production, which leads to a further reddening of biogeochemical spectra resulting in potential predictability on time scales of 2–4 years. However, this low‐pass filtering does not apply to all biogeochemical variables and is regionally dependent. It is shown that phytoplankton biomass in the Central North Pacific adjusts to the much shorter‐term variability associated with changes in mixed layer depth, light availability, and zooplankton grazing, thus limiting the predictability of phytoplankton anomalies to about 1 year. In the eastern North Pacific the slow advection of anomalous nutrient concentrations leads to longer persistence of phytoplankton variability and increased potential predictability of up to 3 years.

Subtropical surface layer salinity budget and the role of mesoscale turbulence

AbstractThe subtropical North Atlantic exhibits the saltiest surface waters of the open ocean. Eventually that water subducted from the surface and exported toward the Equator, as a subsurface salinity maximum (S‐max) forming the lower limb of the subtropical cell. Climatologically, the winter subtropical surface water, coinciding with the deepest mixed layer of ∼100 m, is saltier and colder than the S‐max. Towed CTD measurements in March/April 2013 (a component of the field program SPURS) within the North Atlantic subtropical surface salinity maximum reveal several relatively fresh, warm anomalies, which deviate strongly from climatological conditions. These features introduce a large amount of freshwater into the subtropical region, exceeding the amount introduced by local rain events. Observed scales and evolution of the features strongly suggest a connection to mesoscale dynamics. This is supported by high‐resolution regional model output, which produces an abundance of features that are similar in scale and structure to those observed. It is hypothesized that turbulent transport in the surface ocean is a crucial process for setting mixed layer characteristics, which spread into S‐max stratum. High variability in the EKE implies a high potential for interannual variability in the resulting S‐max water properties by ocean dynamics in addition to the variability caused by air sea fluxes. This has likely consequences to the meridional transport of heat and freshwater of the subtropical cell in the North Atlantic and to the larger‐scale ocean and climate system.

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF DEVELOPING TURBULENT FLOW IN A CLOSED COMPOUND CHANNEL

The study of turbulence characteristics in compound channels is still focus of attention. A lot of experimental results have been produced. Main results have revealed a mixing layer formation between main subchannel and the gap region, implying the flow might be ruled by local scales. The outcomes have pointed to the instabilities of mixing layer are responsible for large structures formation between main channel and narrow gap. Furthermore, the periodical behavior of these structures seems to be ruled by mean mixing layer characteristics, as velocity difference, velocity of convection and mixing layer thickness. By using ANSYS-CFX-12, with unsteady Reynolds Average Navier-Stokes and as turbulence model Spalart-Allmaras (SA), a compound channel was studied. Numerical results predicted velocity profile with high vorticity peaks and flow instabilities starting at L/Dh = 15.

On the vortical structures and behaviour of inclined elliptic jets

A study has been carried out to clarify vortical structures and behaviour resultant from imposing inclined exits along either the major or minor plane of an elliptic nozzle. Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) flow visualizations show production of inclined vortex roll-ups along the inclined planes, with corresponding narrowing of jet columns along the non-inclined planes. Minor-plane inclined nozzles result in significant growths in the jet spread along the inclined plane, while major-plane inclined nozzles produce little variations. Formation of rib structures is observed to be suppressed in minor-plane inclined nozzles and linked to braid vortices inducing the formation of streamwise vortices along the minor plane. Particle-image velocimetry measurements show that increasing the incline angle in major-plane inclined nozzles reduce the strengths of the discrete vortex roll-ups, while the opposite occurs in minor-plane inclined nozzles. Although Reynolds shear stress variations correspond well with changes in incline angle and vortex roll-up strength in major-plane inclined nozzles, they demonstrate a non-monotonic relationship in minor-plane inclined nozzles. LIF visualizations further clarify how strong asymmetric interactions between the inclined vortex roll-ups and braid vortices lead to suppression of axis-switching in major-plane inclined nozzles but not in minor-plane inclined nozzles. The more complex flow behaviour in the latter is responsible for the non-linear relationship in Reynolds shear stress levels observed earlier. Comparisons of the half-jet width profiles confirm the suppression of axis-switching in major-plane inclined nozzles only, while momentum thickness profiles show significant variations in the mixing layer characteristics between major- and minor-plane inclined nozzles.

Characterization of the Mixing Layer Resulting from the Detonation of Heterogeneous Explosive Charges

A dense, two-phase numerical methodology is used to study the mixing layer developing behind the detonation of a heterogeneous explosive charge, i.e., a charge comprising of a high explosive with metal particles. The filtered Navier–Stokes equations are solved in addition to a sub-grid kinetic energy equation, along with a recently developed Eulerian–Lagrangian formulation to handle dense flow-fields. The mixing layer resulting from the post-detonation phase of the explosion of a nitromethane charge consisting of inert steel particles is of interest in this study. Significant mixing and turbulence effects are observed in the mixing layer, and the rms of the radial velocity component is found to be about 25% higher than that of the azimuthal and zenith velocity components due to the flow being primarily radial. The mean concentration profiles are self-similar in shape at different times, based on a scaling procedure used in the past for a homogeneous explosive charge. The peak rms of concentration profiles are 23–30% in intensity and decrease in magnitude with time. The behavior of concentration gradients in the mixing layer is investigated, and stretching along the radial direction is observed to decrease the concentration gradients along the azimuth and zenith directions faster than the radial direction. The mixing and turbulence effects in the mixing layer subsequent to the detonation of the heterogeneous explosive charge are superior to that of a homogeneous explosive charge containing the same amount of the high explosive, exemplifying the role played by the particles in perturbing the flow-field. The non-linear growth of the mixing layer width starts early for the heterogeneous explosive charge, and the rate is reduced during the implosion phase in comparison with the homogeneous charge. The turbulence intensities in the mixing layer for the heterogeneous explosive charge are found to be nearly independent of the particle size for two different sizes considered in the initial charge. Overall, this study has provided some useful insights on the mixing layer characteristics subsequent to the detonation of heterogeneous explosives, and has also demonstrated the efficacy of the dense, multiphase formulation for such applications.

The physical oceanography of upwelling systems and the development of harmful algal blooms

The upwelling systems of the eastern boundaries of the world’s oceans are susceptible to harmful algal blooms (HABs) because they are highly productive, nutrient-rich environments, prone to high-biomass blooms. This review identifies those aspects of the physical environment important in the development of HABs in upwelling systems through description and comparison of bloom events in the Benguela, California and Iberia systems. HAB development is dictated by the influence of wind stress on the surface boundary layer through a combination of its influence on surface mixed-layer characteristics and shelf circulation patterns. The timing of HABs is controlled by windstress fluctuations and buoyancy inputs at the seasonal, event and interannual scales. Within this temporal framework, various mesoscale features that interrupt typical upwelling circulation patterns, determine the spatial distribution of HABs. The inner shelf in particular provides a mosaic of shifting habitats, some of which favour HABs. Changes in coastline configuration and orientation, and bottom topography are important in determining the distribution of HABs through their influence on water stratification and retention. A spectrum of coastline configurations, including headlands, capes, peninsulas, Rías, bays and estuaries, representing systems of increasing isolation from the open coast and consequent increasing retention times, are assessed in terms of their vulnerability to HABs.

Distributions of mixed layer properties in North Pacific water mass formation areas: comparison of Argo floats and World Ocean Atlas 2001

Abstract. Winter mixed layer characteristics in the North Pacific Ocean are examined and compared between Argo floats in 2006 and the World Ocean Atlas 2001 (WOA01) climatology for a series of named water masses, North Pacific Tropical Water (NPTW), Eastern Subtropical Mode Water (ESTMW), North Pacific Subtropical Mode Water (NPSTMW), Light Central Mode Water (LCMW) and Dense Central Mode Water (DCMW). The WOA01 is found to be in good agreement with the Argo data in terms of water mass volumes, average temperature-salinity (T-S) properties, and outcrop areas. The exception to this conclusion is for the central mode waters, DCMW and LCMW, whose outcropping is shown to be much more intermittent than is apparent in the WOA01 and whose T-S properties vary from what is shown in the WOA01. Distributions of mixed layer T-S properties measured by floats are examined within the outcropping areas defined by the WOA01 and show some shifting of T-S characteristics within the confines of the named water masses. In 2006, all the water masses were warmer than climatology on average, with a magnitude of about 0.5°C. The NPTW, NPSTMW and LCMW were saltier than climatology and the ESTMW and DCMW fresher, with magnitudes of about 0.05. In order to put these results into context, differences between Argo and WOA01 were examined over the North Pacific between 20 and 45° N. A large-scsale warming and freshening is seen throughout this area, except for the western North Pacific, where results were more mixed.

Characteristics of mixed layer over Arabian Sea during summer monsoon-2002

Marine Boundary Layer feature has been studied using the observations collected during Arabian Sea Monsoon Experiment (ARMEX) – 2002. Mixed layer heights were estimated using radiosonde observations. It is observed that the boundary layer undergoes weak/small diurnal changes during monsoon conditions. The height of mixed layer varied from 200 – 1000 m depending on the synoptic weather conditions. Convective Boundary Layer is observed to grow rapidly with increase in mean mixed layer temperature.

The compressibility of extra-high-velocity aerated flow

Compressibility of high-velocity air-water flow is an important issue relevant to the design of high-velocity spillways. In this note, the re-analysis of existing model and prototype data suggests that transonic and supersonic flow conditions were achieved in a number of studies. The results imply that, in free-surface flows, compressibility effects have little impact neither on the air bubble diffusion process nor on the mixing layer characteristics.

The compressibility of extra-high-velocity aerated flow

Compressibility of high-velocity air-water flow is an important issue relevant to the design of high-velocity spillways. In this note, the re-analysis of existing model and prototype data suggests that transonic and supersonic flow conditions were achieved in a number of studies. The results imply that, in free-surface flows, compressibility effects have little impact neither on the air bubble diffusion process nor on the mixing layer characteristics.

Simulations of phytoplankton seasonal cycle with multi-level and multi-layer physical-ecosystem models: the Black Sea example

Using the Black Sea ecosystem as an example, the phytoplankton seasonal cycle is simulated by several coupled physical-ecosystem models with different vertical resolutions, but the same biological setting. First, a high resolution multi-level model having a vertical grid spacing of about 3 m is shown to reproduce the observed annual phytoplankton structure reasonably well. This simulation is then compared with its multi-layer alternatives to investigate feasibility of using a relatively simpler model, and to look for its optimum vertical configuration. The simplest model involving a three layer structure provides only general features of the multi-level model simulation. It is able to reproduce the autumn and spring blooms taking place in the mixed layer, but it is not equally successful for simulating the summer production within the intermediate layer below the seasonal thermocline. It is found that this deficiency of the model is related to its poor nutrient recycling capability. Resolving the intermediate layer in the form of two sub-layers (i.e. increasing the model resolution to the four layer case) is shown to improve the efficiency of nutrient recycling and lead to a much better agreement of the results with those of its multi-level model. Further resolution introduced into the mixed layer, however, does not improve the performance of the layer models further. The key conclusion from our analysis is that, despite simplicity of its vertical configuration, the four layer model emerges as a practical alternative tool to its more complex, and computationally more demanding multi-level counterpart, particularly for three dimensional applications. Moreover, the Kraus–Turner type bulk surface-layer dynamics implemented in the multi-layer models are shown to be very efficient in simulating observed mixed layer characteristics as well as those deduced from the more sophisticated Mellor–Yamada level 2.5 turbulence closure parameterization of the multi-level model.

One-year observation of urban mixed layer characteristics at Tsukuba, Japan using a micro pulse lidar

One-year characteristics of the urban mixed layer is observed by an eye-safe, compact micro pulse lidar (MPL). Retrieval method of the mixed layer height (MLH) and the encroachment model of the mixed layer growing are presented. Two case studies are carried out using summer and late winter data. Comparisons are made between the aerosol optical thickness, the rawinsonde data and the model calculation. The development of the mixed layer exhibits temporal behavior similar to that of the aerosol optical thickness, but with a time difference of about 1– 2 h . The growth rate of the MLH agrees well with the encroachment model only in the morning, with considerate deviation during the daytime because of the wind effect. One-year growth rate and the maximum MLH are estimated from the MPL measurement between May 1999 and May 2000. The results show that the properties of mixed layer are strongly correlated with the seasonal meteorological conditions. This work also demonstrates that an automated, compact lidar system such as a MPL is quite useful for long-term monitoring of the mixed layer.

Boundary Layer Characteristics over Areas of Inhomogeneous Surface Fluxes

Abstract This paper describes results from a June 1992 field program to study the response of the boundary layer over a site with well-defined extreme differences in sensible and latent heat fluxes over clearly separated areas, each with characteristic length scales of 10 km or more. The experiment region consisted of semiarid grassland steppe and irrigated farmland. Sensible heat flux maxima over the steppe regularly reached values in excess of 300 W m−2 and were typically a factor of 4 or more greater than those over the farmland. Two days were selected for analysis: one with moderate winds of 7–10 m s−1 and one with lighter winds of 4–7 m s−1 over the steppe. In both cases the wind directions were nearly perpendicular to the boundary between the steppe and farm. An analysis of potential temperature soundings showed that mixed-layer characteristics over both the farm and the steppe were largely determined by heating over the steppe, with advection from the steppe to the farm playing a significant role. On the day with the lighter winds, a secondary circulation related to the thermal contrasts between the two areas was observed. A simple conceptual model is described that predicts the extent of the cooler area required to generate such circulations. The observations illustrate how predictions of boundary layer structure in terms of local surface sensible heat fluxes may be compromised by advective effects. Such difficulties complicate efforts to obtain accurate representations of surface fluxes over inhomogeneous surfaces even if parameterizations of mesoscale contributions to the heat flux are included.