Mixed Martial Arts Events Research Articles

Assessing the Incidence of Head Trauma in Australian Mixed Martial Arts: A Retrospective Analysis of Fight Outcomes.

Mixed martial arts (MMA) is experiencing a surge in popularity in Australia. Previous research has suggested knockout (KO) and technical knockout (TKO) are frequent outcomes during competition, raising concern about the brain health of athletes. This study aims to describe fight outcomes in Australian MMA and to explore differences in fight-ending outcomes between male and female athletes, amateur and professional competition, and different weight classes. There is no difference in the incidence of KO/TKO between level of competition, sex, and weight class. Descriptive epidemiology study. Level 3. Retrospective analysis of 143 Australian MMA events from 2020 to 2023 was conducted using video replay to assess fight outcomes between sex and level of competition. Binary logistic regression analysis was used to determine relationships between weight class and KO/TKO fight outcomes. Male competition (34%) had a significantly greater number of KO/TKO secondary to head strikes fight outcomes compared with female competition (23%) (P = 0.01). The KO/TKO rate secondary to head strikes for amateur and professional male competition was 16.6 and 18.7 per 100 athlete-exposures (AEs), respectively. The amateur and professional female rate was 12.6 and 7.4 per 100 AEs, respectively. Amateur male light heavyweight and heavyweight, and professional male heavyweight were at greater odds of a KO or TKO compared with other weight classes in their equivalent level of competition. There is a sex and professional level disparity in the incidence of fight-ending head trauma in Australian MMA. The study findings highlight the urgent need for targeted safety protocols and medical oversight, particularly for men in heavier weight classes. This study highlights the need for enhanced safety protocols and medical oversight in Australian MMA, particularly for male athletes in heavier weight divisions.

Music and the Affective Production of Violence in MMA

As widespread physical pursuits and popular entertainment forms, combat sports inform and constrain social understandings of violence. Recent research has discussed martial artists’ positioning of their practice vis-à-vis violence and the production of ‘martial arts’ as a category referencing, but not defined exclusively by, violence. For combat sports—an overlapping, competition-oriented category—violence occupies a place of tension. They attract spectators through presentation as violent blood-sports, but competitors and spectators necessarily also understand them as regulated performances. Popular music plays an important role in contextualizing combat sports as conforming to a socially sanctioned model of violent spectacle through walkout music played prior to matches, a form that references other sportive and staged productions of violence for entertainment. Music simultaneously defines combat sports as violent spectacles and constrains them as sports, controlled abstractions of violence with aesthetic goals. Drawing on analysis of videos of walkouts at mixed martial arts events, this article details popular music’s roles in defining and constraining combat sports. The walkout is examined as an affective vibrational phenomenon that varies through specific iterations and media, acquiring, amplifying, negating, or altering sometimes contradictory meanings, and lending emotional weight to the ideologies represented. Throughout these transformations, the walkout serves to position the MMA match as a socially permissible sportive contest that draws on aesthetic references to an imagined model of unsanctioned violence. Image: Haribhagirath, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Prevalence, Patterns, and Characteristics of Eye Injuries in Professional Mixed Martial Arts

PurposeTo describe the frequency and type of eye injuries in fighters in mixed martial arts (MMA) competition.MethodsFight result data were collected from the Nevada Athletic Commission database from 2001 to 2020. Any fighters in a professional mixed martial arts (MMA) contest with an eye injury were included. Main outcome measures included frequency and rate of eye injuries per fight and the types of eye injuries. Secondary outcome measures were gender, laterality, decision type, and length of no-contact recommended.ResultsOf the 256 MMA events in the database, 187 events (73.3%) had at least one eye injury. Of a total 2208 fights at these events, there were 363 fighters who sustained 369 eye injuries, with the yearly rate of eye injuries per 100 fighters ranging from 2.56 to 12.22. The most common injuries were eyebrow and eyelid lacerations (n=160, 43%), lacerations around the eye (n=98, 27%), and orbital fractures (n=62, 17%). Most eye injuries were right sided (n=197, 53.3%) and the majority of fighters with eye injuries lost their match (n=228, 62.8%). Fifty-seven fighters were recommended for further ophthalmology clearance after the match. The most common reasons for recommended ophthalmology follow-up was orbital fracture (n=25, 44%) and retinal injury (n=7, 12%). Forty-three fighters received no-contact requirements relating to their injury for an average of 8.9 weeks (range 1–24 weeks).ConclusionOphthalmic injuries in professional MMA were prevalent, were most often lacerations surrounding the eye, and often accompanied the fighter losing their match.

Evaluation of the early weigh-in policy for mixed martial arts events adopted by North American athletic commissions

ABSTRACT Objective To characterize the epidemiology of overweight athletes before and after the introduction of the Early Weigh-In Policy (EWIP). Methods A retrospective cohort study examined the weigh-in results for professional mixed martial arts (MMA) events over a 2-year period around the introduction of the new EWIP between 2014 and 2018. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize the study populations. Risk ratios were used to identify differences in the study populations before and after the introduction of the EWIP. Results After the introduction of the EWIP, the number of overweight athletes increased from 5.7% to 8.4% and the average overweight mass increased from 1.3 kg (2.9 lbs) to 1.8 kg (3.9 lbs) [difference, 0.5 kg (1.0 lb), p = 4.35 × 10^(−5)]. The proportion of athletes is not distributed similarly across the different overweight mass categories when comparing the pre- and post-EWIP time frames (p = 0.006). More athletes in the pre-EWIP period were overweight by smaller amount, while in the post-EWIP period athletes were overweight by larger amount. Of the athletes who were overweight before the regulation change, 28.7% were over the weight limit by greater than 1.8 kg (4 lbs), compared to 39.5% after the new EWIP introduction. On average, the ratio of overweight athletes per events by commission was 1.2 before the introduction of the EWIP and 2.1 after. Conclusion These results appear to indicate that the EWIP has not altered weight-cutting culture in MMA in a positive manner. This study casts doubt on the benefits of an EWIP and raised the possibility of utilizing the longitudinal weight monitoring approach to mitigate rapid weight-cycling behavior. However, before additional changes are made by any athletic commission, further research is needed to examine the efficacy of the abovementioned longitudinal weight monitoring approach or any other strategy.

Use of a mobile CT scanner at professional boxing and MMA events: making combat sports safer

Professional boxing and mixed martial arts (MMA) are popular contact sports with high risk for both acute and chronic traumatic brain injury (TBI). Although rare, combatants have died in the ring/cage or soon after the completion of the bout. The cause of death in these cases is usually acute subdural hematoma, acute epidural hematoma, subarachnoid haemorrhage, intracranial haemorrhage, or second-impact syndrome (SIS). Neuroimaging or brain imaging (either CT scan or MRI brain) is currently included in the process of registering for a license to fight in a combat sport in most commissions in the United States and around the world. Neuroimaging in the immediate aftermath of a bout primarily serves to rule out acute traumatic brain injury. At present if concern for acute TBI in a combatant is raised either during or after the conclusion of a bout, based on the neurological evaluation by the ringside physician, the fighter is immediately transported via on-site ambulance to the nearest Level I trauma center for urgent CT scan head and neurosurgical intervention if deemed necessary. Some TBIs may not manifest immediately or manifest in a subtle fashion so as to escape detection by the ringside physicians in the immediate aftermath of a bout. In this commentary the use of a mobile CT scanner at professional boxing and MMA events is proposed with the intention of making these sports safer.

Head Trauma Exposure in Mixed Martial Arts Varies According to Sex and Weight Class.

Brain injury arising from head trauma is a major concern in mixed martial arts (MMA) because knockout (KO) and technical knockout (TKO) are frequent fight outcomes. Previous studies have shown a high incidence of matches ending due to strikes to the head but did not consider weight categories and female fights. This study aimed at analyzing match stoppages in MMA and the exposure to head trauma distinguished by sex and weight categories. The heavier the weight class, the greater the risk and incidence of head trauma will be, regardless of sex. Descriptive epidemiology study. Level 3. Publicly available data of 167 MMA events from 1903 fights between 2014 and 2017 were assessed, comprising 8 male and 2 female weight categories. The combined KO/TKO rates per 100 athlete-exposures in the middleweight (19.53), light heavyweight (20.8), and heavyweight (26.09) divisions were greater than previously reported for MMA. While stoppage via KO/TKO occurred in 7.9% of combats in the female strawweight division, it occurred in 52.1% of the male heavyweight fights. The male middleweight ( P = 0.001), light heavyweight ( P < 0.001), and heavyweight divisions ( P < 0.001) had an increased risk of KO/TKO due to strikes to the head by 80%, 100%, and 206%, respectively. The risk in the flyweight division decreased 62% ( P = 0.001). All categories were compared with the lightweight division. The female bantamweight category presented a 221% increased risk in matches ending due to KO/TKO compared with the strawweight division ( P = 0.012). Punches to the head were the major technique used to end a combat via KO/TKO, regardless of sex and weight class. Head injury risk and incidence varies considerably according to sex and weight category in MMA. The analysis of head trauma exposure in MMA athletes should be distinguished according to sex and weight category.

Ultimate Fighting Championship Fans: Foundations of Subcultural Stratification

ABSTRACTThe Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) is a professional mixed martial arts league around which a subculture of fans has developed. Using a theoretical framework for the study of collectives, this study explored foundations of social stratification within UFC subculture. Multiple modes of qualitative data were collected at a major UFC event. Social stratification was perceived by UFC fans as influenced by an individual's subcultural capital, reflected by their scope and mode of involvement in the UFC subculture; displays of UFC fandom through dress; expression through specialized mixed martial arts (MMA) discourse and knowledge; strategic social media use; and conduct at MMA events. This research also highlights the importance of digital technologies and mediated communication in studying contemporary leisure-centered subcultures.

Performance Evaluation and Favoritism

This article investigates various types of bias and favoritism that may be present in the performance evaluations of state-licensed and state-selected judges for mixed martial arts (MMA) events. Using detailed fighter performance statistics collected from after-the-fact video analysis, I investigate live, round-by-round judging decisions for major MMA events held in Nevada and California from 2001 to 2012. Findings do not support hypotheses that judge favor titleholders or disfavor fighters given point deductions but do support bias toward larger betting favorites, those with insurmountable leads, and the fighter who won the previous round. Findings provide nonexperimental support for possible biases in a relatively opaque decision environment involving substantial complexity. The results also have strategic implications for MMA fighters and coaches as well as certified judge trainers the athletic commissions that license and oversee the judges.

Women that fight: The female participation in mixed martial arts events

Sports marketing is in Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) a strategic potential, either through the promotion and implementation of events or the interested in sports. Thus, the management of the sports event planning becomes strategic to measure it considers the participation of female athletes in MMA events. This study aims to analyze the participation of females in MMA events, highlighting the perception of the fighters on the current business scenario in this segment. The method is configured as an exploratory and descriptive research with a qualitative approach, where there is information content analysis obtained through an open questionnaire. The results showed that the MMA product planning females is working strategically towards attracting viewers and brand awareness. In addition, further notes to male dominance in this type of sport, emphasizing gender issues related to compensation of the athletes and their occupation. However, it is clear that athletes even challenged by this scenario, remain convinced of their choices by segment.

An Examination of Mixed Martial Arts Spectators' Motives and their Sports Media Consumption in Poland.

The study attempted to analyse the concept of spectators’ motives at mixed martial arts (MMA) events in Poland. In addition, we investigated the relation between motives and sports media consumption. The sample consisted of 273 people attending three similar, regional MMA events. Exploratory factor analysis was used to refine the structure of motives. Confirmatory factor analysis showed a reasonable fit of the obtained model (RMSEA = 0.41). Using ANOVA we found three significant differences in assessment of motives, based on gender. The factor of aesthetics and knowledge was ranked the highest for men and women. Men rated drama and violence, while women perceived socializing and crowd experience, and drama, as the following factors. Path analysis indicated that these motives explained 56% of variance in media consumption for men and 57% for women. The findings showed that the motive of vicarious achievement was the main predictor of media consumption for men, while aesthetics and knowledge were the key predictors for women. The results and ideas for further research are discussed.

Head Trauma in Mixed Martial Arts

Background: Mixed martial arts (MMA) is a full combative sport with a recent global increase in popularity despite significant scrutiny from medical associations. To date, the empirical research of the risk of head injuries associated with this sport is limited. Youth and amateur participation is growing, warranting investigation into the burden and mechanism of injuries associated with this sport. Purpose: (1) To determine the incidence, risk factors, and characteristics of knockouts (KOs) and technical knockouts (TKOs) from repetitive strikes in professional MMA; and (2) to identify the mechanisms of head trauma and the situational factors that lead to KOs and TKOs secondary to repetitive strikes through video analysis. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: Competition data and video records for all KOs and TKOs from numbered Ultimate Fighting Championship MMA events (n = 844) between 2006 to 2012. Analyses included (1) multivariate logistic regression to investigate factors associated with an increased risk of sustaining a KO or TKO secondary to repetitive strikes and (2) video analysis of all KOs and TKOs secondary to repetitive strikes with descriptive statistics. Results: During the study period, the KO rate was 6.4 per 100 athlete-exposures (AEs) (12.7% of matches), and the rate of TKOs secondary to repetitive strikes was 9.5 per 100 AEs (19.1% of matches), for a combined incidence of match-ending head trauma of 15.9 per 100 AEs (31.9% of matches). Logistic regression identified that weight class, earlier time in a round, earlier round in a match, and older age were risk factors for both KOs and TKOs secondary to repetitive strikes. Match significance and previously sustained KOs or TKOs were also risk factors for KOs. Video analysis identified that all KOs were the result of direct impact to the head, most frequently a strike to the mandibular region (53.9%). The average time between the KO-strike and match stoppage was 3.5 seconds (range, 0-20 seconds), with losers sustaining an average of 2.6 additional strikes (range, 0-20 strikes) to the head. For TKOs secondary to strikes, in the 30-second interval immediately preceding match stoppage, losers sustained, on average, 18.5 strikes (range, 5-46 strikes), with 92.3% of these being strikes to the head. Conclusion: Rates of KOs and TKOs in MMA are higher than previously reported rates in other combative and contact sports. Public health authorities and physicians should be cognizant of the rates and mechanisms of head trauma. Preventive measures to lessen the risks of head trauma for those who elect to participate in MMA are described.

Performance Evaluation and Favoritism: Evidence from Mixed Martial Arts

This paper investigates various types of bias and favoritism that may be present in the performance evaluations of state-licensed and state-selected judges for mixed martial arts (MMA) events. Using detailed fighter performance statistics, I analyze round-by-round scoring decisions for major MMA events held in Nevada and California from 2001-2012. Findings do not support hypotheses that judges favor title holders or disfavor fighters given point deductions, but there is support for bias towards heavy favorites and the fighter who won the previous round. Findings provide non-experimental support for possible anchoring and recency bias in a relatively opaque decision environment involving substantial complexity. The results also have strategic implications for MMA fighters and coaches as well as the athletic commissions that license and select the judges.

“Frame-Changing” the Game

This article extends research on media framing and the concept of “frame-changing” by examining the sanctioning of professional mixed martial arts (MMA) events in Ontario, Canada. After initially indicating that sanctioning MMA was unimportant, the Ontario government shifted its policy and announced it would sanction professional MMA events. A content analysis was conducted on newsprint articles published between 2009 and 2010 that were related to the sanctioning of MMA events in Ontario. After removing syndicated reports, 18 newsprint articles derived from six major Canadian dailies served as the focus for this study. Using open and axial coding techniques, these articles identified that the media produced two frames for the discourse related to the sanctioning of MMA (i.e., legal/ethical and economic), which changed throughout the discourse. This study serves to examine how mainstream media frames the sport in jurisdictions yet to develop a MMA policy.

Anticipating and Training for the Worst-Case Metabolic Scenario: A Comment on Del Vecchio, Hirata, and Franchini (2011)

Del Vecchio, Hirata, and Franchini (2011) studied the effort: pause ratio of mixed martial arts by analyzing 26 bouts in two separate mixed martial arts events in Sao Paulo, Brazil. They referenced research identifying effort:pause ratios from other combat sports ranging from 10:1 (Brazilian Jiu Jitsu), 2:1 (judo and wrestling), and 1:3/1:4 (taekwondo). The authors identified an effort:pause ratio ranging from 1:2 to 1:4 in the bouts they analyzed, and suggested and described training programs that resemble this ratio. It is important for coaches to anticipate the most challenging metabolic mixed martial arts scenario and to create training programs that mimic that profile. Del Vecchio and associates' research is an important first step in gathering information which can help enhance training programs for injury prevention and performance enhancement.

Estimating attendance for the Ultimate Fighting Championship: a demand theory approach

Mixed martial arts emerged as a major player in the sports industry during the 2000s, with the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) growing into the sport’s foremost promotion. Critical to the promotion’s management is understanding fan consumption choices. Using economic demand theory, we draw on the spectator motivation and team sports demand literatures to provide an empirical analysis of what drives demand for mixed martial arts events. Our regression models show that economic and scheduling considerations explain the variation in UFC attendance. The popular notion that The Ultimate Fighter reality series served as the impetus for the UFC’s growth is unsupported by time series analysis and numerous independent variables in our model.