Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit Research Articles

Movements and Habitat Use of Franklin's Ground Squirrels in Duck-Nesting Habitat

We used radio telemetry to determine the movements and habitat use patterns of adult Franklin's ground squirrels (Spermophilus franklinii) on a 152-ha Waterfowl Production Area (WPA) in central North Dakota. The squirrels were diurnal. Mean total distance traveled daily was 213 and 153 m for males and females, respectively. Movements of females decreased during gestation and lactation; those of both sexes decreased prior to immergence. Annual home ranges averaged 24.6 and 8.7 ha for males and females, respectively; biweekly home-range sizes exhibited seasonal patterns. Ground squirrels restricted their activities almost exclusively to the WPA. Use of blocks of herbaceous cover on the WPA could not be explained by vegetation height, density, or litter depth. Ground squirrel movements were influenced by locations of burrow systems and patchily distributed food resources. Periodic cultivation or removal of herbaceous vegetation may inhibit use of upland duck-nesting habitat by ground squirrels. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 53(2):324-331 Planting dense nesting cover (DNC) to provide upland-nesting ducks with increased security from nest predators is a common practice on areas managed for duck production in North America's prairie pothole region (Duebbert and Kantrud 1974, Duebbert and Lokemoen 1976, Higgins and Barker 1982). Although DNC is attractive to some duck species, its importance to the activities of predators of duck eggs is undetermined. The Franklin's ground squirrel inhabits dense cover throughout much of the prairie pothole region (Hall 1981). It is a predator of duck eggs (Sargeant et al. 1987) and has been implicated in severe predation on duck nests in fields of DNC in east-central North Dakota (Greenwood 1986). Past studies of Franklin's ground squirrels have emphasized natural history (Sowles 1948, Haggerty 1968, Haberman and Fleharty 1971, Iverson and Turner 1972, Murie 1973), but little information is available on their movements and use of habitat. Our objective was to describe the movements and use of habitat by Franklin's ground squirrels on a federally owned WPA where upland habitat was primarily DNC fields of different ages. We thank D. H. Johnson and J. N. Burroughs for help with data processing, R. J. Greenwood, M. A. Sovada, and D. J. Norris for field assistance and helpful suggestions throughout the study, and H. F. Duebbert and D. H. Johnson for comments on manuscript drafts. The study was funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center; the Missouri Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit; and the Edward K. Love Foundation. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Missouri Department of Conservation, University of Missouri-Columbia, and the Wildlife Management Institute contribute to the Missouri Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit. This is Journal Series 10008, Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Project 189.

Ruffed Grouse Metabolic Rate and Temperature Cycles

We measured the effects of temperature and wind on ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) metabolic rates in an open-circuit respiration system with a closed-circuit wind tunnel. Metabolic heat production was linearly related to operative temperature (Te) below a lower critical temperature of 1.5 ? 0.99 (SE) C. Standard metabolic rate was 3.2 + 0.11 W (66.1 kcal/day) for a grouse of mean weight (607 g). Metabolic rate was related linearly to wind speed 05. The regression predicting net metabolic heat production (metabolic heat production evaporative cooling [M E]) was 3.1589 0.1176T, + 0.4141(wind speed)s5 (r2 = 0.98, P mean low nocturnal cloacal temperature (38.3 + 0.54 C) (P = 0.006). J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(3):450-453 Ruffed grouse are distributed throughout north temperate and subarctic North America (Aldrich 1963) where winter thermostatic energy demands are potentially high. Grouse may feed frequently (Thomas et al. 1975) or use fat reserves (Norman and Kirkpatrick 1984) to meet winter metabolic demands. Rasmussen and Brander (1973) reported effects of cold temperatures on ruffed grouse metabolic rates under free convection (no wind). Effect of forced convection on heat loss by birds has been estimated from predictions based on heat transfer theory of cylinders and flat plates (Calder and King 1974, Robinson et al. 1976). Only a few studies have directly measured effects of forced convection on birds (Gessaman 1972, Robinson et al. 1976, Bakken et al. 1981), and none have been on galliforms. Most birds exhibit daily cyclical changes of 1-3 C body temperature between active and inactive periods (Calder and King 1974). This variation may increase with food deprivation or cold exposure (Calder and King 1974, Chaplin 1976, Bucher and Worthington 1982). Body temperature of ruffed grouse has been reported (Rasmussen and Brander 1973), but cyclic fluctuations or response to cold temperatures have not been measured. We report on effects of forced convection and perature on the metabolic heat production of ruffed grouse. We also measured daily fluctuations in body temperature and changes due to cold exposure. H. C. Gerhardt, J. Maruniak, and the Division of Biological Sciences, University of MissouriColumbia provided equipment necessary for this study. We thank D. E. Figert, D. E. Hoffman, B. J. Wilson, and C. S. James for assistance with various aspects of this study. M. R. Ryan and T. V. Dailey reviewed this manuscript. Financial support for this study was provided by the Ruffed Grouse Society and the Missouri Department of Conservation. This is Contribution 10382 of Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station ProjThis content downloaded from 157.55.39.45 on Fri, 02 Sep 2016 05:31:36 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms J. Wildl. Manage. 52(3):1988 GROUSE METABOLIC RATES * Thompson and Fritzell 451 ect 189 and the Missouri Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit (U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Mo. Dep. Conserv., Univ. Missouri-Columbia, and Wildl. Manage. Inst., cooperating).

Effects of Radio-Tagging on Breeding Behavior of Mourning Doves

Cooing rates of captive unmated male mourning doves (Zenaida macroura) decreased markedly during a 2-day adjustment period following radio-tagging. In 4 of 7 experimental trials, cooing rates returned to previous levels by the 3rd day. In the other 3 trials cooing rates remained low, but dominance problems related to penning may have been a factor. In 4 of 6 experimental trials, captive radio-tagged males successfully paired with introduced females and began nesting. In the wild, 2 of 5 unmated radiotagged males successfully paired. Cooing rates of free-flying unmated radio-tagged males were comparable to those of back-tagged males in previous studies (8.7 vs. 8.2-8.9 coos/3 min). Based on 12 experimental trials and observations of 24 free-flying radio-tagged doves (both sexes), radio-tagging did not adversely affect previously established pair bonds. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 45(2):428-434 Radiotelemetry has been used extensively in avian research, but few thorough evaluations of effects of radio packages on behavior have been made. Inferences usually are drawn from field observations, although some have been based on controlled experiments; reported effects varied greatly with the species studied. Major studies include Ramakka's (1972) findings that radio-tagging resulted in reduced courtship and atypical breeding behavior in male woodcock (Philohela minor). In controlled experiments, captive red grouse (Lagopus 1. scoticus) consumed less food and were less active following radio-tagging (Boag 1972); however, breeding performance was not affected if radio packages were attached late in incubation (Lance and Watson 1977). Female willow grouse (L. 1. lagopus) adapted to the radio package and incubated and hatched their eggs normally (Erikstad 1979). In an experimental study, Greenwood and Sargeant (1973) observed that radio-tagged mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and bluewinged teal (A. discors) preened more than controls and exhibited a partial aversion to swimming. However, Gilmer et al. (1974) believed that social and breeding behaviors of instrumented mallards and wood ducks (Aix sponsa) were not adversely affected by radio packages. This study evaluated the effects of radio-tagging on the breeding behavior of mourning doves based upon controlled experiments with penned birds and observations of free-flying radio-tagged doves. We thank M. A. Parker and L. L. Wollard for technical aid; S. S. Clark, E. K. Fritzell, and F. B. Samson for editorial suggestions; and K. C. Sadler for advice and administrative support. METHODS AND MATERIALS Pen studies were conducted from May to August 1976-78. Three experiments 1Contribution from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Management Institute, Missouri Department of Conservation, and University of Missouri, cooperating). Research was funded by the Accelerated Research Program for Migratory Shore and Upland Game Birds, Contract USDI 14-160008-2091, administered by the Missouri Department of Conservation through agreement with the University of Missouri. Work was supported in part by Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Projects 182 and 184; this is Journal Series paper 8441. 428 J. Wildl. Manage. 45(2):1981 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.112 on Mon, 03 Oct 2016 05:08:23 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms RADIO-TAGGING BREEDING MOURNING DOVES* Sayre et al. 429 were designed to evaluate behavioral effects associated with radio-tagging during different stages of pairing or nesting.

A Breeding-Ground Survey of EPP Canada Geese in Northern Manitoba

Aerial surveys flown in northern Manitoba during 1972-77 were used to determine indices of spring breeding populations and distributions of Eastern Prairie Population (EPP) Canada geese (Branta canadensis). Precision within ?20% of the survey results (P = 0.05) was achieved by using stratified random sampling and optimum allocation procedures. Variability among observers was negligible. However, comparisons between counts made from fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters indicated that breedingpair estimates should be multiplied by about 1.4 to adjust for birds not seen. Distribution of nesting geese strongly favored the coastal areas bordering Hudson Bay. A section of tundra habitat comprising less than 8% of the 154,600/km2 survey area contained 44-67% of the total breeding pairs during the 1st 4 years. Average annual nest densities in lowland habitat near the Hudson Bay coast ranged from 0.17-0.32 pairs/km2, whereas more-interior areas seldom exceeded 0.12 pairs/km2. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 45(1):46-53 The Eastern Prairie Population of Canada geese in the Mississippi Flyway expanded from approximately 28,000 birds inventoried during winter 1947-48 (Hankla and Rudolph 1967) to >250,000 birds in 1977 (Humburg, unpubl. rep., Mo. Dep. Conserv. Fed. Aid Proj. W-13-R, 1979). Much of this increase is attributed to a sound management program developed through the cooperative efforts of state, provincial, and federal agencies. Changes in landuse practices and an ever-increasing demand for outdoor recreation have required improved methods for monitoring and regulating the goose population. In recent years, attention has focused on the need for expanded research on the EPP breeding grounds. Information on the primary breeding areas of EPP geese, their distribution, and productivity is of great importance in setting annual harvest regulations. Additionally, the ability to detect and respond to changes caused by man's impact on northern nesting areas may be crucial in safeguarding this population. This paper describes the distribution of EPP Canada geese nesting in northern Manitoba. The research was conducted under the auspices of the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Missouri Department of Conservation, Wildlife Management Institute, and University of Missouri cooperating) and the Eastern Prairie Population Subcommittee of the Mississippi Flyway Council Technical Section. Financial support was provided by the following agencies: Missouri Department of Conservation, Iowa Conservation Commission, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Manitoba Department of Natural Resources, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Canadian Wildlife Service, and the Edward K. Love Conservation Foundation. 1 Present address: New York Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Fernow Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853. 2 Present address: Canadian Wildlife Service, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N6, Canada. 46 J. Wildl. Manage. 45(1):1981 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.129 on Fri, 01 Jul 2016 05:05:03 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CANADA GEESE IN MANITOBA * Malecki et al. 47 We acknowledge the support and assistance provided by W. R. Goforth, D. H. Rusch, R. D. Sparrowe, R. K. Brace, L. H. Fredrickson, and T. S. Baskett. We also express appreciation to the people of Churchill, Manitoba, without whose help this project could not have been completed in as timely a manner.

Habitat Use by Wintering Bald Eagles in South Dakota

Habitat use by wintering bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) was surveyed systematically along a section of the Missouri River floodplain in southeastern South Dakota. Main centers of eagle use were associated with a communal roost and a food source. During severe windchill conditions and high wind velocities, eagles moved to protected areas. Eagles preferred tree perches, but also perched on cliffs, ice, partially submerged logs, and on the ground. Eagles perched on stout, horizontal branches that were bordered on at least 1 side by open area. Nearly all perches were within 30 m of the river, and 58% of the perched eagles were within 5 m of the river bank. Eagles preferred mature cottonwoods (Populus deltoides). Distribution of bald eagles at a winter site apparently is influenced most by location of food and areas protected from wind. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 44(4):798-805 Declines in bald eagle numbers (Broley 1958, Sprunt 1969, Braun et al. 1975, Brown 1975) have accentuated the need for intensive habitat management. Habitat requirements for nesting have been identified (Hensel and Troyer 1964, Murphy 1965, Snow 1973, Whitfield et al. 1974, McEwan and Hirth 1979), and areas in some northern forests presently are managed for nesting bald eagles. On the winter range, habitat encroachment by humans is extensive, and eagles now concentrate at scattered locations where habitat and food are readily available. Preservation of winter habitat requires an understanding of the habitat requirements for wintering eagles. Bald eagles are attracted to open water throughout the winter range. General characteristics of bald eagle wintering habitat have been described by Cooksey (1962), Southern (1963, 1964), Swisher (1964), Ingram (1965), Grewe (1966), Edwards (1969), Shea (1973), Lish and Lewis (1975), and Servheen (1975). Stalmaster and Newman (1979) reported perch-preference indices for tree species at a bald eagle wintering area in Washington; however, specific habitat preferences in relation to habitat availability have not been identified in the midwest. The Missouri River below Fort Randall Dam in southeastern South Dakota has been the site of a major winter concentration of bald eagles for several years. Eagles apparently use the area because of the abundant food supply of fish and waterfowl, cottonwood stands bordering the river, and open water throughout the winter. An abundant supply of fish occurs in the 1st kilometer of river immediately I Contribution from the Gaylord Memorial Laboratory (University of Missouri-Columbia and Missouri Department of Conservation cooperating); Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Management Institute, Missouri Department of Conservation, and University of Missouri-Columbia cooperating); Lake Andes National Wildlife Refuge; the National Wildlife Federation; the Office of Biological Services, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; the Omaha District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; and from the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Project 170, Journal Series 7824. 2 Present address: Snake River Birds of Prey Research Project, Boise District-BLM, 3948 Development St., Boise, ID 83702. 3 Present address: Las Vegas National Wildlife Refuge, Las Vegas, NM 87701. 798 J. Wildl. Manage. 44(4):1980 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.175 on Thu, 11 Aug 2016 06:17:46 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms BALD EAGLES WINTERING IN SOUTH DAKOTA* Steenhof et al. 799 below the dam; fish from the reservoir are pulled through the dam's turbines and fish from the river are attracted to warmer, plankton-rich water in the dam's tailraces (N. Benson, pers. commun.). Our objectives were to identify habitat sites used by bald eagles on the floodplain, structure and species composition of woody habitat, and physical characteristics of trees consistently used by perching eagles. G. F. Krause and S. Ward provided assistance in computer summarization of data and statistical analysis. We acknowledge review of the manuscript by R. D. Drobney, T. E. Martin, M. N. Kochert, and graduate students at Utah State University.

Evaluation of a Korean Pheasant Introduction in Missouri

We evaluated the success of releases of 4,172 South Korean pheasants (Phasianus colchicus karpowi) in the Missouri River bottom in west-central Missouri by measuring dispersal, breeding effort, brood production, and survival during and after the 5 release years, 1967-71. Dispersal of tagged pheasants released at 2 sites in 1970 averaged 2.9 km; the farthest movement was 24 km. A winter survey in 1972 indicated that distribution of pheasants in the area approximated the annual dispersal limits. High initial mortality of released birds was suggested by recoveries of tagged birds released in 1970. Substantial numbers of broods reported by landowners in annual surveys, and moderate crowing cock indices for 6 years following the last release indicate a reproducing population that is stabilizing at a low density. Lack of suitable nesting cover may be a factor limiting further growth of this population. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 41(4):616-623 In recent years land-use changes have altered the environment in a large part of Missouri, rendering it less suitable for native upland game populations. Despite these alterations much of the area appears to be potential pheasant range. Ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus torquatus) were first introduced into Missouri in the early 1900's. From 1904 to 1933 an estimated 40,000 ringnecks were distributed by the Game and Fish Department (Bennitt and Nagel 1937:53). The disappearance of the bird convinced game biologists that with existing land-use trends and climatic conditions in Missouri the ring-necked pheasant could not reproduce and survive in sufficient numbers to sustain hunting except in the northwest counties (Fig. 1). In 1958 the Department of Conservation began a program of experimentally releasing the progeny of several pure strains and hybrids of wild-trapped Asian pheasants. Initia breeding stock was secured through a cooperative agreement with the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife in conjunction with its Foreign Game Introduction Program (Bump 1963). One of the subspecies selected for release in Missouri was the South Korean ring-necked pheasant (P. c. k rpowi). South Korean ringnecks were selected because they were known to breed in captivity, their behavioral attributes were similar to the other successfully introduced ringnecks, and their native habitats were similar in many respects to those in Missouri, the upper Midwest, and parts of the eastern United States. The South Korean climate (Bohl 1970) with hot, humid summers characterized by frequent heavy rainfall, and average winter temperatures below freezing with snow falling no more than 30 days annually, is similar to the Missouri climate. 1 Contribution from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Missouri Department of Conservation, Wildlife Management Institute, and University of Missouri-Columbia, cooperating), from Federal Aid Project 13-R-23, Missouri Department of Conservation, and from the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series Number 7616. The senior author was supported by a Paul K. Wehmiller Fellowship. 2 Present address: Ashland Wildlife Research Area, School of Forestry, Fisheries and Wildlife, University of Missouri-Columbia, Ashland 65010. 3 Present address: Division of Habitat Preservation Research, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 20240. 616 J. Wildl. Manage. 41(4):1977 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.102 on Mon, 03 Oct 2016 04:08:36 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms KOREAN PHEASANTS IN MISSOURI -Wollard et al. 617

The Reproductive Cycle in the Male Bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana in Missouri

Histological sections of the testes and a tympanum growth curfe were used to determine sexual maturity at a body length of 120 mm. Sexually mature frogs were at least in their second full season after transformation. Peak breeding activity occurred during July. Comparisons were made with the female breeding cycle. Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., 77 (1), 1974. Little has been published regarding reproduction of bullfrogs (Rana catesbeianv) from natural populations. This is surprising considering their widespread North American distribution and their importance as game and laboratory animals. Willis, Moyle and Baskett (1956) reported on the reproductive characteristics of sexual maturity, time and duration of breeding for female bullfrogs in Missouri. The purpose of this paper is to examine the reproductive cycle of male bullfrogs and to correlate this information with the female reproductive pattern (Willis et al., 1956). This paper also presents data on the growth of the tympanum and its relationship to the attainment of sexual maturity. Materials and Methods Male bullfrogs were collected twice monthly during the summer of 1962 and 1963 at the University of Missouri's Ashland Wildlife Area. Supplemental collections were made from farm ponds in Boone County, Missouri. Immature frogs used in this study were primarily collected from the Schell-Osage Wildlife Area in Vernon County. Frogs were pithed and measured on a fishery measuring board. Sex of all frogs were confirmed by dissection. Ages of the frogs were estimated as described by Schroeder and Baskett (1968). Histological sections were prepared and stained with a modified Schorr stain. The maximum antero-posterior diameter of the tympana was measured by . . a vernler ca lper. Results and Discussion Testicular Weight. Testis weight for most size groups from May through August indicated a decline that coincided with the summer breeding season (Table 1). Many investigators (Glass and Rugh, 1944 Rana pzpiens; Lofts, 1964Rana esculenta; Mizell, 196WRana pipiens and Lofts, Wellan and BenTransactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, Vol. 77, No. 1, 1974. Published FeXbruary n, 1975. IThis paper is a contribution from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit: U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Wildlife Management Institute, Missouri Conservation Commission, and University of Missouri cooperating. This study was, in part, supported by funds from the University of Missouri Research Council. 2Present address: Department of Biology, University of Evansville, Evansville, Indiana 47701

Seasonal Activity Patterns of White-Tailed Deer in Eastern South Dakota

Seasonal activity patterns of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were studied intensively along a 15-mile stretch of the Big Sioux River and less intensively on an expanse of 1,100 square miles in central eastern South Dakota from February, 1964, to March, 1966. Thirty-three deer were marked individually with ear tags, streamers, and collars, and 461 locations were recorded. Five of these deer were tracked by radio-telemetry. For adult and yearling deer, average total area ranges in square miles were: summer, 1.0 + 0.5; fall, 0.7 ? 0.3; winter, 2.7 ? 1.7. For the same deer, maximum linear ranges in miles were: summer, 1.7 ? 0.5; fall, 1.8 ? 0.4; winter, 2.5 ? 0.9. No significant differences (P> 0.05) were found for total area or maximum linear ranges between seasons, or among adults, yearlings, and fawns in winter. Total linear ranges for deer observed in more than one season averaged 12.0 + 2.2 miles for males, and 11.1 ? 2.1 miles for females. These ranges were not significantly different (P > 0.05). In early January, discrete herds of up to 80 animals began to form. Some herds wintered in fairly well-defined areas, but up to 30 percent of the deer population remained widely scattered all winter and deer moved up to 12 miles between herds. Instability of winter herds ruled out the use of winter herd counts as an accurate population index. When the thaw occurred in March or April, deer dispersed in several directions at varying rates with a predominance of northward movements along the Big Sioux River and its tributaries. Average distance between winter and summer ranges for six deer was 14.4 + 1.5 miles. The deer population was partially migratory in that it used all of the study area in summer but withdrew to a small part of it in winter. The home-range pattern of deer included one or more sub-areas which provided all habitat needs. When these requirements were disturbed, depleted, or changed, deer moved to a new sub-area. Data from this study indicated that deer management units, if they could be administered effectively, might better be based on natural drainages than on counties. The history of white-tailed deer populations in eastern South Dakota parallels that of deer in much of the Great Plains region (Cook 1945). Before 1900, destruction of habitat and unregulated hunting reduced deer numbers to near extinction. About 1925, aided by protection from hunting, remnant populations of deer began to grow and reappear in parts of their old range. In 1947, four counties east of the Missouri 1A joint contribution from the South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, South Dakota State University, U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, and Wildlife Management Institute through the South Dakota Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit and supported in part by Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration funds, Project South Dakota W-75-R-6, 7, 8. 2 Present address: Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Columbia. 3Present address: Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, Jamestown, North Dakota. 420 River were opened to the first deer hunting season in 26 years (Popowski 1962:2), and in 1959 a regular annual season was begun in all 44 counties. A growing population of both deer and hunters has created a need for more intensive management of the deer herd. This study was conducted from February, 1964, through March, 1966, to provide basic information for deer management in eastern South Dakota. The objectives were to: (1) determine the distribution of deer and the extent of their daily and seasonal movements on key areas in various habitat types of eastern South Dakota; (2) identify the principal factors influencing deer distribution and movements; (3) determine the feasibility of using a census of winter deer herds as a population index. The assistance of D. R. Progulske in planning and implementing the study and This content downloaded from 207.46.13.127 on Wed, 12 Oct 2016 04:30:02 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ACTIVITY OF DEER IN SOUTH DAKOTA * Sparrowe and Springer 421 in reviewing this manuscript is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are due the employees of the South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks for their advice and for their aid in reporting deer sightings. R. C. Drewien, R. L. Drieslein, G. L. Geis, W. K. Pfeifer, and Mrs. R. Sparrowe helped with field work.

Onset of Evening Activity of Swamp Rabbits and Cottontails in Relation to Sunset

Onset of evening activity was recorded for ten swamp rabbits (Sylvilagus aquaticus) (1967 breeding season) and 22 cottontails (S. floridanus) (1960-1962 breeding seasons) confined in 1.8-2acre enclosures. As sunset was delayed toward spring, the onset of activity of individual swamp rabbits was delayed. The delay was greater for females and the lowest-ranking male than for the reproductively active males. The still later sunsets of late spring and summer were not accompanied by a further delay in onset of evening activity, and time of onset became highly variable but occurred well before sunset. Cottontail data indicated a pattern similar to that of swamp rabbits. Onset of activity for both species occurred during the twilight period following sunset in late winter and early spring but well before sunset in late spring and summer. Rowley (1957), in Tasmania, reported that activity of confined wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) began nearly an hour earlier, relative to sunset, in autumn than in winter. He suggested that this difference was probably due to the increased grazing opportunity offered by the longer winter nights, making daylight emergence unnecessary. Based on 24-hr roadside counts of cottontails in Illinois, Lord (1961) concluded that activity began at 5:00 PM (all times are Central Standard Time) and ceased at about 7:00 AM, regardless of varying light conditions between winter and summer. He concluded that some factor other than sunset acted as the stimulus for onset of cottontail activity. Lord (1964) recorded activity of caged cottontails throughout the year and determined that activity lasted longer during summer when 1Joint contribution from the Department of Zoology, University of Missouri, and the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit: U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Wildlife Management Institute, Missouri Department of Conservation, Edward K. Love Foundation, and University of Missouri cooperating. Special aid and facilities were furnished by Pittman-Robertson Project (Missouri) 13-R-15, and the Gaylord Memorial Laboratory, Puxico, Missouri. 2 Present address: Department of Zoology, University of Missouri, Columbia. nights were shorter. Lord (1964:41) suggested that the process of food assimilation may provide the endogenous clock for reglating rabbits' daily activity pattern. In contrast, Mech et al. (1966) suggested a relation between onset of activity a d sunset, and cessation of activity and sunrise for cottontails and snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) in Minnesota. During a study of the social behavior of confined cottontail and swamp rabbits (Marsden and Holler 1964), it became apparent that onset of activity in both species occurred much earlier in relation to sunset in late spring and summer than in winter and early spring. In view of the contradictions in the literature, additional data on seasonal changes in activity onset times of swamp rabbits were collected during the breeding season of 1967. This paper reports on those data and data collected on cottontails during the earlier study. We express our gratitude to T. S. Baskett, U. S. B. S. F. W., and to C. H. Conaway, University of Missouri, for valuable advice and assistance during the course of the study. D. H. Hazelwood, University of Missouri, and K. C. Sadler, Missouri Department of Conservation, kindly reviewed the manuscript.

Land Use and Prairie Chicken Populations in Southwestern Missouri

Prairie chicken populations fluctuated from a low of 44 (both sexes) in 1949 to a high of 314 (males only) in 1967 on 16.5 square miles of prairie chicken range in St. Clair County, Missouri. The largest population increases occurred when the number of booming cocks rose from 80 in 1963 to 314 in 1967. These population increases were believed to have occurred in response to a combination of increased grassland and improved management of a 1,360-acre tract of native grassland. A study of agricultural censes data and aerial photographs for 1939-66 indicated that the amount of grassland increased from 45.3 per cent to 56.9 per cent of the study area and that the increase occurred primarily as fescue established since 1957. In 1959 the Missouri Department of Conservation purchased a 1,360-acre tract of native prairie near the center of the study area. Subsequent management was intended to maintain quality stands of native grasses thus providing ample prairie chicken cover at all seasons of the year. The increased prairie chicken population possibly was a response to greater grassland acreages on the entire study area. But judging by very heavy use of the 1,360-acre native prairie tract near the center of the study area, improved management of that tract may have been an important factor. The importance of permanent grasslands to the greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus) has been documented by many authors; Schwartz (1945) and Hamerstrom, Mattson, and Hamerstrom (1957) are outstanding examples. However, it is difficult to determine the minimum amounts of grassland required and optimal spatial needs of the birds. Grassland requirements for prairie chicken almost certainly vary by locality. These problems necessitate the study of prairie chicken populations and accompanying changes in land use in many parts of the greater prairie chicken's range. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, Vol. 73, No. 2, 1970. Published January 15, 1971. 1 Contribution from Missouri Department of Conservation, Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Project 13-R-19; and from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Wildlife Management Institute, Missouri Department of Conservation, and University of Missouri, Cooperating. 2 Present address: Science Department, Trenton Senior High School, Trenton, Missouri 64683.

Evaluating Ruffed Grouse Reintroduction in Missouri

The ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) was almost extirpated in Missouri in the early 1900's, probably because of habitat destruction through repeated burning and overgrazing. An attempt to reintroduce grouse during the 1940's failed. Since then, improved habitat conditions for forest game warranted other attempts. Wild-trapped birds from Ohio and Indiana were released in Missouri on the Ashland Wildlife Research Area, Boone County; and Daniel Boone Memorial Forest, Warren County. Thirty-nine grouse were released in 1959 at Ashland and 18 on the Boone Forest. Subsequent releases brought the Ashland Area total to 119 birds and the Boone Forest total to 143. For evaluating results of reintroduction, data were obtained during eight breeding seasons, 1960-67. Thirty-six drumming activity centers were found at Ashland, 1962-67, and 26 on the Daniel Boone Forest, 1961-67. Reproduction at Ashland was confirmed in 1963, 1964, 1965, and 1966 by catches of young grouse; and four unbanded drumming males, evidently progeny of the released birds, were trapped. Ruffed grouse appear to be established on both areas, but densities are low and occupancy of range beyond the release areas has been limited. Missouri is on the southwestern edge of the known ruffed grouse range. Early reports cited by McKinley (1960) are contradictory, but Missouri grouse populations were perhaps never as high nor as uniformly distributed as in states to the north and east. Nevertheless, ruffed grouse were once present throughout most of the state and were common in some localities until 1900. By the early 1930's grouse were reported from only 19 counties and probably totaled fewer than 100 birds (Bennitt and Nagel 1937:41). They continued to decline, and the last authenticated observation was made in Warren County in 1956, by J. B. Lewis. Although native ruffed grouse reached very low levels, it is doubtful that they were extirpated. Efforts to reestablish grouse in Missouri were made in 1940-43. Birds obtained from the Sandhill Game Farm, Inc., Babcock, Wisconsin, were released on three refuges in the southern Ozark region of the state. These birds persisted for some time, but finally disappeared. An evaluation of these early releases was not made, and nothing is known about the reason for their failure. Missouri's forest game habitat has improved in the last 20 years. As a result, it has been possible to restore white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) to much of the original range (Murphy 1965:142, Lewis 1961:507, 509). Encouraged by the improved prospects for forest game, the Missouri Department of Conservation initiated an experimental ruffed grouse reintroduction program on two central Missouri areas in 1959. Wild grouse trapped in southern Indiana and Ohio (at the latitude of central Missouri) were used as stock in the new program. These regions appeared to be the best potential source of grouse, considering habitat and climate. The purpose of this paper is to report 8 years' data on survival, dispersal, and reproduction of these released birds, and to 'A contribution from Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Project 13-R-19, Missouri Department of Conservation, and from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit: U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Wildlife Management Institute, Missouri Department of Conservation, and University of Missouri cooperating. 2 Present address: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks.

Courtship of the Redhead (Aythya Americana)

THE annual cycle of the Redhead (Aythya americana) has been studied more intensively than that of most North American ducks. The species winters mainly on the Gulf and east coasts and breeds in the prairie pothole region of the northern United States and southern Canada and in the large marshes of the arid west (Weller, 1964). It nests over water in emergent vegetation and is inclined toward parasitic-laying (Low, 1945; Weller, 1959). Its weight cycle and plumages have been described (Weller, 1957) and related to the chronology of pair formation (Weller, 1965). The present paper integrates my observations with those of previous workers on the courtship displays and pairing activities of the species, presents some quantitative appraisal of the frequency and sequence of displays, and discusses their possible role in the breeding biology of the species. The earliest reported observations of the courtship of the Redhead seem to have been made by Wetmore (1920: 243-244), but it was Hochbaum (1944: 38-43) who described most of their displays comparatively in his study of the closely related Canvasback (Aythya valisineria). The only more intensive studies of the courtship of a pochard (Aythyini) are those of Lind (1958, 1962) on the Red-crested Pochard (Netta rujina). Recently, McKinney (1965) discussed comfort movements and their use as displays in this and other species, and Johisgard (1965: 232-234) has described Redhead displays performed on water. General courtship activities of Redheads were outlined by Low (1945) who noted that courtship was prevalent on certain large water areas and occurred mostly in the morning and evening. The observations reported here were made on breeding grounds at Delta, Manitoba (1952-1954, 1956), and Utah (1955); on wintering areas in Texas (late December and early January, late February and early March, 1960-61) and Chesapeake Bay and Cayuga Lake (February and March, 1954); and on the northward migration route in Iowa (1961, 1962, 1966) and in Illinois (March, 1957). Observations on some captives of all ages were made at the Delta Waterfowl Station. Work in Manitoba, Utah, and on the east coast was sponsored by the Delta Waterfowl Research Station and the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit. Studies in Texas were financed by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Welder Wildlife Foundation, and Iowa State University.

Foods of Lesser Scaups on Breeding, Migration, and Wintering Areas

This food habits study was based on stomach contents of 164 lesser scaups (Aythya affinis): 39 from a breeding area in Manitoba, 88 from a fall concentration area on the Mississippi River in Illinois, and 37 from two wintering areas on the Louisiana coast. Animal foods made up the bulk of the diet of all three groups: 91.1 percent on the breeding area, 93.5 percent on the fall concentration area, and 63.7 percent on the wintering areas. The most important animal foods were amphipod crustaceans on the breeding area, molluscs on the fall concentration area, and fishes on the wintering areas. The percentages of animal foods are similar to those found in other recent investigations, but they differ from earlier findings which show the lesser scaup to be chiefly vegetarian. Additional collecting is needed, especially in early spring, for a more accurate picture of seasonal food habits but present information shows that lesser scaups feed chiefly, and sometimes almost exclusively, on animals most of the year. Animal foods decrease in the diet from summer to winter and probably reach a low point in late winter and early spring. Food habits data reflect the close relationship of the lesser and the greater scaup and show that they differ sharply from other North American members of their genus, which are chiefly vegetarians. A general picture of the food habits of the lesser scaup was given by Cottam (1939:38-46) who presented data on 1,051 stomachs from various localities in North America and reviewed the findings of earlier investigators. Since then, additional information has been obtained from scaups collected along fall migration routes (Korschgen 1955, Anderson 1959) and on wintering areas (Cronan 1957, Harmon 1962), but little attention has been given to food habits on the breeding ground. Munro (1941:134-137) reported the foods of 45 lesser scaups from British Columbia breeding areas. Cottam's (1939) data also included specimens from breeding areas but they were not discussed separately, except for 17 juveniles collected in western Canada. No information from other parts of the breeding range was found in the literature. This paper reports the foods eaten by adult lesser scaups on a breeding area in southwestern Manitoba, a fall concentration area on the Mississippi River in Illinois, and two wintering areas in Louisiana. Comparisons are made with previously published studies. Data from breeding and wintering areas were derived from 76 stomachs taken from specimens collected primarily for a study of the reproductive organs. Nineteen specimens in 1959 and 20 in 1960 were obtained in the pothole country around Erickson, Manitoba, during spring and summer. The other 37 were collected in marshes around Lake Borgne near New Orleans, Louisiana, in December, 1959 (20 specimens), and f om roadside ditches and ponds near Grand Chenier, southwestern Louisiana, in late February and early March, 1960 (17 specimens). Data from the fall concentration area are based on 88 stomachs taken from lesser scaups shot by hunters at Keokuk Pool on the Mississippi River, Hancock County, Illinois, during fall, 1948. Illinois specimens were provided by George C. Arthur, Illinois Department of Conservation, who generously contributed them to this study. The authors are in1 Contribution from the Gaylord Memorial Laboratory, the Delta Waterfowl Research Station, the Missouri Department of Conservation, and the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit.

Primeval Deer Hunting Pressures Revealed by Remains from American Indian Middens

Deer jaws from Indian middens were available from five populations in Missouri--three from the prehistoric period, two from the historic. Two contemporary samples from areas where any deer is legal game were used for comparison. Findings led to three conclusions: (1) The Indian kill of fawns was very light, never exceeding 8 percent of the total sample (in modern times fawns make up 30 percent of the hunting bag), which may have been a voluntary conservation practice among a people dependent upon deer as an important item of food and clothing. (2) Modern deer populations are being more closely cropped than were those hunted by Indians. (3) The proportion of old deer in the harvest (61/2 years or more) is declining. At the three prehistoric sites this proportion ranged from 20 to 26 percent; at the two historic sites it was 3 and 11 percent; modem white man's kill is only 2 percent old deer. The more rapid population turnover in contemporary deer populations indicates that white man's equipment and rapid transportation enable him to exert greater hunting pressure during a 1-week hunting season than Indians did by hunting the year round. In 1947, Leopold et al. (1947:165-170) listed 30 states suffering from overpopulations of deer; many other states could have been added to the list since that time. These overpopulations have led to many interesting speculations as to the causes and to the belief that irruptions of deer are a modem phenomenon, man-made through mismanagement of the herds. Most states with problem deer herds have been forced to legalize the hunting of does; this means that any deer is legal, and fawns as well as does are shot. It becomes of interest, therefore, to compare contemporary deer harvest pressures with those maintained by Indians under primeval conditions. The principal tool used by the modem game biologist to evaluate hunting intensity is the age compostion of the kill, determined by examination of deer rami and comparison with a standard set of rami (commonly called a jaw board). Criteria for age-classes are based on premolar replacement, third molar eruption, and degree of enamel wear, as established by Severinghaus (1949). In the present study, deer jaws from Indian middens in Missouri were available in sufficient numbers from five populations -three from the prehistoric period, two from the historic. Each jaw was compared with the same standard jaw board, and both right and left rami were included. Many of the tooth rows were so broken or in'A contribution from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit: U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, The Wildlife Management Institute, Missouri Conservation Commission, and the University of Missouri, cooperating. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.107 on Wed, 30 Mar 2016 06:36:34 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms DEER REMAINS IN INDIAN MIDDENS * Elder 367 complete as to preclude their use, and it was quite impossible to match right with left sides because the distal ends of the rami were nearly always missing. Contemporary samples were from states in which a deer of any sex or age is legal game. From Iowa, the 1953 data were used for comparison because 1953 was their first open season in many years (Sanderson and Speaker 1954). In Missouri, any deer had been legal game for 7 years prior to 1958, the year I chose for comparison. Thus biases arising from bucks-only seasons were avoided. There were some possible sources of error. It may be argued that jaws of fawns were comparatively scarce in material from middens because of poor preservation, the softer bone of the younger animal being less likely to persist. I do not believe this to be true, because rami of fawns were found in good preservation from every village site studied and were accompained by well-preserved bones of a much more delicate nature from many small mammals. Since jaws from Indian middens were not all taken during a brief, restricted fall season, they were more difficult to classify as to age than were jaws from contemporary kills. This makes possible an error of a year either way in classifying some jaws, but it does not introduce a consistent bias, and hence each jaw was placed with the age-class it most resembled. Indian midden material is not stratified sufficiently for any one year's harvest to be distinguishable; each site represents a deer kill extending over a considerable number of years and is thus an average sample. Fawns, for instance, might have been killed in time of famine but not in intervening

Chemical Inhibitors of Ovulation in the Pigeon

The recent increase in the numbers of several species of native blackbirds as well as the increasing concern over the numbers of such exotic birds as starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), house sparrows (Passer domesticus), and pigeons (Columba livia) has prompted widespread study of control methods. This paper reports the results of a 4-year search for a practical oral contraceptive for nuisance birds. Most substances found effective in inhibiting ovulation in other animals proved to have effect on pigeons, even in nearly lethal doses. Compounds used included: tranquilizers, gametocides, antithyroid compounds, hypophyseal inhibitors, insecticides, fungicides, and coccidiostats. Only provera at 0.1 percent or more in the diet and arasan at 0.35 percent inhibited ovulation without severe debilitation of the birds; the effect was lost as soon as the materials were withdrawn from the diets. Practical results were obtained with the anticholesterol compound SC-12937 (22, 25-diazacholestanol dihydrochloride). When this compound constituted 0.1 percent of the diet for 10 days in early November, no eggs were laid for 3 months, full fertility among some birds was not reached for 6 months, and some remained anovulatory for 12 months. Following spring feeding, ovulation was almost completely inhibited for 3 months, and after 6 months remained 75 percent inhibited. As man expands his numbers he comes in conflict with the few species of animals that are adaptable enough to thrive and even increase despite alteration of their environment or sometimes as a result of a new environment artificially created for them. The coyote's (Canis latrans) spread eastward over half the United States and the tremendous increase in blackbirds are examples of problems caused by species that seem to have profited by man's alteration of habitat. The gradual spread of exotic birds such as the house sparrow, European starling, and domestic pigeon is obviously the result of man's providing food and nesting sites. Each of these birds occasionally becomes so abundant as to require control; and the problems caused by excess feral animals are usually relegated to the field of wildlife management, whether or not we welcome them. The use of poisons to eliminate nuisance birds has many repugnant if not hazardous aspects, particularly in cities. It is opposed by well-organized groups and, in any case, simply makes room for more birds to move in and occupy the same territories. The employment of a multitude of frightening devices from noisemakers and artificial owls to such witch doctory as little black boxes and silvered ropes serves only to move bird concentrations from one building to another. A new approach seems necessary. Successful control of the screwworm fly (Callitroga hominivorax) in Florida by releasing sterile males (Bushland and Hopkins 1951, Simpson 1958, Knipling 1960) prompted my attempt to find a means of inhibiting reproduction in birds. With avian populations it is neither desirable nor practical to attempt to swamp out normal fertile males by releasing sufficient numbers of hand-reared, infertile male birds. Therefore, leads were sought in the medical literature devoted to birth control through inhibition of ovulation, in poultry literature dealing with side effects of drugs used in control of poultry diseases, in cancer research sidelines (gametocides, mutagens, or cytotoxins), and in wildlife sources revealing effects of insecticides and fungicides on reproduction in birds. 1A contribution from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit: U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Wildlife Management Institute, Missouri Conservation Commission, and the University of Missouri, cooperating.

Sex- and Age-Ratio Bias of Cannon-Netted Geese

Age ratios of Canada geese (Branta canadensis), derived from catches in cannon traps, are of questionable value unless time on bait is taken into account. Findings were based on examination of 2,879 geese caught in 46 timed catches at Swan Lake National Wildlife Refuge in 1961 and 1962. The proportion of adults in the catches increased with length of time on bait. No significant differences were found in sex ratios as time on bait increased. This study was designed to determine whether any measurable sexor age-ratio biases are obtained in the cannon-net trapping of Canada geese. It has been speculated that the period of time geese spend on the bait at the trap sites, before the catch is made, may influence sex and age ratios obtained. Correct interpretation of band recoveries is important in analysis of population dynamics. One problem that plagues wildlife research is the difficulty of obtaining random samples from wild populations. If sex and age ratios from trap samples contain biases of unknown magnitude, we cannot accurately determine flock composition or predict productivity and turnover from these samples. Until we know the magnitude of bias involved, we cannot make corrections and must assume that present trap samples and band recoveries are indicative of the populations. This study was carried out at Swan Lake National Wildlife Refuge in north-central Missouri during October, November, and December of 1961 and 1962. Financial assistance was supplied by the Missouri Conservation Commission and an Edward K. Love Fellowship from the University of Missouri. Dr. W. H. Elder, Rucker Professor of Zoology at the University of Missouri, guided the study. I am also grateful to the following: Dr. Donald H. Hazelwood, Department of Zoology, University of Missouri, for advice on statistics; Richard Vaught, Waterfowl Biologist, and Fred Veach, Area Manager, Missouri Conservation Commission; Leo Kirsch, Manager, and Howard Thornsberry, Wildlife Technician, Swan Lake National Wildlife Refuge. Richard Thompson, from the Savannah National Wildlife Refuge, Georgia, and Earl Cunningham, of the Carolina Sand Hills National Wildlife Refuge, South Carolina, also assisted with observations and handling of geese for several days during the fall of 1962. MATERIALS AND METHODS Determination of time on bait before each catch necessitated observation of the bir s from the time they came near the trap site until the actual shot was fired for the catch. The two trap sites used during this study were located on opposite sides of Swan Lake. The points of concealment and detonation control were an old silo, now an observation tower, and a storage barn. The silo is about 400 yards from one site, the barn only 30 yards from the other. Nets and cannons were laid out parallel to the shoreline in conventional fashion 'Contribution from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Management Institute, Missouri Conservation Commission, Edward K. Love Foundation, and the University of Missour , cooperating. 2 Present address: Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, 403 Perlstein Bldg., Beaumont, Texas.

A Captive Elk Herd in Missouri

A captive herd of 103 elk was exterminated by hunting. The herd had increased from 10 elk to 103 elk after eight calving seasons. Sex and age ratios indicated some mortality. Average annual rate of increase was calculated to be 28 percent. The population density of 1 elk per 23 acres was very near the carrying capacity of the range. Acorns and grass were the most important foods in the fall diet. These data were collected during extermination of a captive herd of American elk (Cervus canadensis) confined on an ammunition storage depot known as Tyson in St. Louis County, Missouri. The storage depot covers 2,373 acres which are surrounded by an 8-foot-high chain-link fence. Oak-hickory forest cover the steep slopes and ridges which compose most of the area. There are only about 250 acres of grassy bottomland clearings. The original stocking of 10 elk (2 bulls and 8 cows) was obtained from Yellowstone National Park and released in the depot during February, 1951. The U. S. Defense Corporation, which administers the depot, contacted the Missouri Conservation Commission about management of the elk in February, 1958. An aerial survey in April, 1958, revealed 66 elk. A subsequent survey of range conditions showed very heavy utilization of available forage. Grass was available only in the bottomland clearings and was very closely grazed. Little forage was available under the closed canopy of the forest, and heavy browsing was evident on woody vegetation. A reduction of the herd was recommended. The Defense Corporation decided to eliminate the elk for safety reasons and because funds were not available for winter feeding, which would soon have become necessary. The writer expresses appreciation to F. L. Luke, Chief of Security, U. S. Defense Corporation, and H. Schwartz, Missouri Conservation Commission, for expediting collection of these data, and to Levi Mohler, Idaho Department of Fish and Game, and T. S. Baskett, Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, for advice on the manu-

Periodicity of Reingestion in the Cottontail

Sylvilagus floridanus (203 individuals) was collected throughout a year. Reingestion occurred as a well-synchronized diel rhythm, coinciding with the inactive period following sunrise. During summer the reingestion period was shorter than in winter. Through a series of experiments Morot (1882) demonstrated that domestic rabbits produced two types of fecal pellets: a hard, rounded, fibrous type found wherever rabbits are common, and a smaller, softer, heavily mucous coated pellet seen only when the rabbit's stomach contents are exposed (Fig. 1). Rabbits normally take the soft pellets directly from the anus and swallow them without mastication. This type of coprophagy has been ternmed reingestion (Watson, 1954). General observations concerning reingestion in native American leporids include those of Bookout (1959) who noted fecal pellets in the stomach of a snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) and Hamilton (1955) who found fecal pellets in the stomach of a marsh rabbit (Sylvilagus palustris), but failed to find them in the cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus). Kirkpatrick (1955) was the first to observe a cottontail in the act of consuming pellets. Geis (1957) and Dexter (1959) reported finding fecal balls in the stomachs of cottontails. Reingestion was reported in the swamp rabbit (Sylvilagus aquaticus) by Layne (1958) and confirmed by Toll, et. al. (1960). The latter investigators also found reingestion in some cottontails. They suggested that reingestion occurred in the daytime during the resting period, and was discontinued at night during feeding. There is a great paucity of information concerning the rhythm of reingestion in American lagomorphs. The only extensive study is that of Lechleitner (1957), who noted the daily reingestion pattern of the blacktailed jack rabbit (Le pus c. californicus) in California. Virtually nothing has been published about the reingestion pattern of the cottontail. The purpose of this study was to ascertain whether there is a definite daily rhythm in cottontail reingestion; to observe individual variation in periodicity; to discern whether there is a relationship between activity and the reingestion pattern; and to discover any relationship between photoperiod and reingestion rhythm. 1 Contribution from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit: U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Management Institute, Missouri Conservation Commission, Edward K. Love Foundation, and University of Missouri cooperating. The author acknowledges the help of William H. Elder, Rucker Professor of Zoology, University of Missouri, for direction and advice and Thomas S. Baskett, Biologist, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, for reading the manuscript.

Home Range, Reproduction, and Foods of the Swamp Rabbit in Missouri

In Missouri, the swamp rabbit (Sylvilagus aquaticus (Bachman) ) occurs principally in the southeastern lowlands. It is a locally abundant and popular game animal. Relatively little is known of the life history of this species, particularly in the northern part of its range. The object of this study is to contribute to our knowledge of specific aspects of the life history of this species. The study area was in Mingo swamp which lies in Stoddard, Wayne, and Bollinger counties, in an abandoned valley of the Mississippi River. The swamp formerly supported extensive stands of bald cypress (Taxodium distichum), tupelo gum (Nyssa aquatica) and several species of oaks. Drainage, logging, and clearing of the higher land for farms have greatly altered the landscape. But large acreages of good swamp rabbit habitat remain in cut-over lowland hardwood types, particularly on the Mingo National Wildlife Refuge and the Duck Creek Wildlife Area. This paper is a contribution from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit and the Department of Zoology, University of Missouri. The senior author was an Edward K. Love Fellow. We are indebted to Howard M. Wight, Missouri Conservation Commission, for valued suggestions and assistance; and to G. K. Brakhage and L. J. Schoonover for facilities and assistance.

A Collar for Identification of Big Game

All methods yet devised for marking big-game mammals individually have undesirable features. Colored plastic ear tags, as used by Leopold, et al. (1951) to mark mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), may be recognized up to one-quarter mile if conditions are optimum and a telescope is used. However, these markers are usually recognizable only at much shorter distances if many different colors and patterns are employed; moreover, they are often lost. Ear cuts used in combination with tags are usually recognizable only at short distances and are sometimes confused with natural deformities. Large areas of dyed pelage can be seen farther, but some dyes fade, and at best they are lost with the molt (Webb, 1943; Clover, 1954). Natural deformities and markings have been used to identify individuals (Kabat, et al., 1953), but often too few animals have distinctive markings. The use of bells enables observers to secure records for many deer that are not seen, but it is possible to mark only small numbers of animals individually with bells (Taylor, 1947 and pers. comm.). During a study of movements and home ranges of white-tailed deer (0. virginianus) in Missouri, the writer developed a conspicuously colored collar that proved superior in some ways to the marking schemes discussed above. The coll r was made of belt leather, heavy weight Dura upholstery plastic (obtained from T. M tthews Upholstery Company, Kansas City, Missouri), nd a 1-inch buckle, according to the specific tions given in Fig. 1. The buckle was attached so that the plastic could be cemented to the rough side of the leather. Goodyear Pliobond cement proved to be most satisfactory for fabricating the plastic design and attaching it to the leather; the plastic was best cemented to the leather when the ends of the collar were buckled together. The plastic nd leather sometimes were also sewn together for added strength. Outdoor-exposure tests of the plastic made for one full year indicated that this material is durable, color-fast, and flexible even at below-freezing temperatures. Five colors of plastic (red, yellow, green, black, and white) were used in combination with five designs shown in Fig. 1. In favorable light these designs were easxContribution from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Management Institute, Missouri Conservation Commission, Edward K. Love Foundation, and the University of Missouri cooperating.