Mechanism Of Misfolding Research Articles

Chronic gastroesophageal reflux dysregulates proteostasis in esophageal epithelial cells

Background and aimsGastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a common digestive disorder that is characterized by esophageal tissue damage produced by exposure of the esophageal lining to the gastric refluxate. GERD can raise the risk of multiple serious complications including esophageal tumors. At the molecular levels, GERD-affected tissues are characterized by strong oxidative stress and the formation of reactive isolevuglandins (isoLGs). These products of lipid peroxidation rapidly interact with cellular proteins forming protein adducts. Here, we investigated the interrelationship between isoLG adduction and aggregation of cellular proteins. MethodsProtein misfolding and aggregation were analyzed using multiple protein misfolding and aggregation assays. Pathological consequences of protein adduction and aggregation were studied using human and murine esophageal tissues. Surgical model of esophageal reflux injury and L2-IL1β transgenic mice were employed to investigate the mechanisms of protein misfolding and aggregation. ResultsOur studies demonstrate that gastroesophageal reflux causes protein misfolding and aggregation that is associated with severity of GERD. Dysregulation of proteostasis induces ferroptotic cell death and is mediated by modification of cellular proteins with reactive isoLGs that can be prevented by isoLG scavengers. ConclusionsGERD causes dysregulation of cellular proteostasis, accumulation of isoLG protein adducts, misfolded and aggregated proteins that promote ferroptotic cell death. Taken together, this study suggests that GERD has similarities to other known pathological conditions that are characterized by protein misfolding and aggregation.

Synchronized Photoactivation of T4K Rhodopsin Causes a Chromophore-Dependent Retinal Degeneration That Is Moderated by Interaction with Phototransduction Cascade Components.

Multiple mutations in the Rhodopsin gene cause sector retinitis pigmentosa in humans and a corresponding light-exacerbated retinal degeneration (RD) in animal models. Previously we have shown that T4K rhodopsin requires photoactivation to exert its toxic effect. Here we further investigated the mechanisms involved in rod cell death caused by T4K rhodopsin in mixed male and female Xenopus laevis In this model, RD was prevented by rearing animals in constant darkness but surprisingly also in constant light. RD was maximized by light cycles containing at least 1 h of darkness and 20 min of light exposure, light intensities >750 lux, and by a sudden light onset. Under conditions of frequent light cycling, RD occurred rapidly and synchronously, with massive shedding of ROS fragments into the RPE initiated within hours and subsequent death and phagocytosis of rod cell bodies. RD was minimized by reduced light levels, pretreatment with constant light, and gradual light onset. RD was prevented by genetic ablation of the retinal isomerohydrolase RPE65 and exacerbated by ablation of phototransduction components GNAT1, SAG, and GRK1. Our results indicate that photoactivated T4K rhodopsin is toxic, that cell death requires synchronized photoactivation of T4K rhodopsin, and that toxicity is mitigated by interaction with other rod outer segment proteins regardless of whether they participate in activation or shutoff of phototransduction. In contrast, RD caused by P23H rhodopsin does not require photoactivation of the mutant protein, as it was exacerbated by RPE65 ablation, suggesting that these phenotypically similar disorders may require different treatment strategies.

Molecular Mechanism of Tau Misfolding and Aggregation: Insights from Molecular Dynamics Simulation.

Tau dysfunction has a close association with many neurodegenerative diseases, which are collectively referred to as tauopathies. Neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) formed by misfolding and aggregation of tau are the main pathological process of tauopathy. Therefore, uncovering the misfolding and aggregation mechanism of tau protein will help to reveal the pathogenic mechanism of tauopathies. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation is well suited for studying the dynamic process of protein structure changes. It provides detailed information on protein structure changes over time at the atomic resolution. At the same time, MD simulation can also simulate various conditions conveniently. Based on these advantages, MD simulations are widely used to study conformational transition problems such as protein misfolding and aggregation. Here, we summarized the structural features of tau, the factors affecting its misfolding and aggregation, and the applications of MD simulations in the study of tau misfolding and aggregation.

Probing the Molecular Structure and Dynamics of Membrane-Bound Proteins during Misfolding Processes by Sum-Frequency Generation Vibrational Spectroscopy.

Protein misfolding and amyloid formation are implicated in the protein dysfunction, but the underlying mechanism remains to be clarified due to the lack of effective tools for detecting the transient intermediates. Sum frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy (SFG-VS) has emerged as a powerful tool for identifying the structure and dynamics of proteins at the interfaces. In this review, we summarize recent SFG-VS studies on the structure and dynamics of membrane-bound proteins during misfolding processes. This paper first introduces the methods for determining the secondary structure of interfacial proteins: combining chiral and achiral spectra of amide A and amide I bands and combining amide I, amide II, and amide III spectral features. To demonstrate the ability of SFG-VS in investigating the interfacial protein misfolding and amyloid formation, studies on the interactions between different peptides/proteins (islet amyloid polypeptide, amyloid β, prion protein, fused in sarcoma protein, hen egg-white lysozyme, fusing fusion peptide, class I hydrophobin SC3 and class II hydrophobin HFBI) and surfaces such as lipid membranes are discussed. These molecular-level studies revealed that SFG-VS can provide a unique understanding of the mechanism of interfacial protein misfolding and amyloid formation in real time, in situ and without any exogenous labeling.

The Transthyretin Protein and Amyloidosis – an Extraordinary Chemical Biology Platform

AbstractThe amyloidoses are diseases caused by accumulation of amyloid fibrils from over 40 different human misfolded proteins in various organs of the body depending on precursor protein. Amyloidogenesis is a self‐perpetuating reaction with deleterious consequences causing degeneration in cells and organs where depositions occur. Transthyretin, TTR, is an amyloidogenic protein causing sporadic disease from the wild‐type protein during aging and from numerous different autosomal dominant familial mutations at earlier ages depending on the sequence of the hereditary variant. Until recently the disease process was poorly understood, and therapies were scarce. Over the past decades, spurred by clinical data, using chemical biology research, the mechanisms of TTR production and misfolding have been elucidated affording almost complete coverage of the TTR amyloidogenesis pathway to be targeted. This translational science success has provided a plethora of therapeutic options for the TTR amyloidoses providing an inspiring example for success in previously intractable diseases.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and other prion diseases.

Prion diseases share common clinical and pathological characteristics such as spongiform neuronal degeneration and deposition of an abnormal form of ahost-derived protein, termed prion protein. The characteristic features of prion diseases are long incubation times, short clinical courses, extreme resistance of the transmissible agent to degradation and lack of nucleic acid involvement. Sporadic and genetic forms of prion diseases occur worldwide, of which genetic forms are associated with mutations in PRNP. Human to human transmission of these diseases has occurred due to iatrogenic exposure, and zoonotic forms of prion diseases are linked to bovine disease. Significant progress has been made in the diagnosis of these disorders. Clinical tools for diagnosis comprise brain imaging and cerebrospinal fluid tests. Aggregation assays for detection of the abnormally folded prion protein have a clear potential to diagnose the disease in peripherally accessible biofluids. After decades of therapeutic nihilism, new treatment strategies and clinical trials are on the horizon. Although prion diseases are relatively rare disorders, understanding their pathogenesis and mechanisms of prion protein misfolding has significantly enhanced the field in research of neurodegenerative diseases.

Ultrasensitive Detection of Lipid-Induced Misfolding of the Prion Protein at the Aqueous-Liquid Crystal Interface.

The misfolding of the α-helical cellular prion protein into a self-propagating β-rich aggregated form is a key pathogenic event in fatal and transmissible neurodegenerative diseases collectively known as prion diseases. Herein, we utilize the interfacial properties of liquid crystals (LCs) to monitor the lipid-membrane-induced conformational switching of prion protein (PrP) into β-rich amyloid fibrils. The lipid-induced conformational switching resulting in aggregation occurs at the nanomolar protein concentration and is primarily mediated by electrostatic interactions between PrP and lipid headgroups. Our LC-based methodology offers a potent and sensitive tool to detect and delineate molecular mechanisms of PrP misfolding mediated by lipid-protein interactions at the aqueous interface under physiological conditions.

Characterizing amyloid protein conformation with a multi-resonant metasurface based biosensor in the infrared window.

Misfolding of amyloid protein will cause neurodegeneration and trigger conformational disease. The lack of an effective detection approach is a brake on unveiling the mechanism of protein misfolding. We theoretically proposed a novel metasurface-based biosensor for characterizing the protein's conformation. The coupling complementary split ring resonator (cSRR) was engineered to manipulate incident waves in the near-infrared (NIR) and mid-infrared (MIR) windows at the same sensing surface. The cSRRs had the advantages of intensifying the electric field and sharpening the resonance profile, resulting in a highly qualified biosensing performance. In the NIR window, the biolayer's refractive index and thickness change were detected by the dual-wavelength, which resolved into an optogeometrical parameter of the amyloid biolayer. In the MIR window, the resonant wave specifically triggered the rotation-vibration transition of amyloid protein molecules with different conformations, which was shown as the unique Amide I and II bands in the fingerprint spectrum. Thus, our proposed biosensor presented sensitive detection of biolayer and specific identification of constituent molecules. It is helpful to interpret the protein's misfolding behavior on the molecular level by associating the biolayer's structure and the constituent molecule's conformational change.

Effect of Histidine Behaviors on Structural Properties of Human Islet Amyloid Peptides

AbstractHistidine behaviors (including tautomeric behaviors and protonation behaviors) have been considered as an origin factor in protein folding and misfolding. However, such effects on human islet amyloid peptide (hIAPP) is still unclear, which are the key points in understanding hIAPP misfolding mechanisms. In current study, to investigate the structural properties of hIAPP peptide with histidine in (δ), (ϵ), and (p) states, three independent replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations were performed. Our results show that β‐sheet structure contents are very low no matter histidine on which state, while high α‐helix contents are obtained in A8‐L16/H18 and G24‐L27/S28 regions. Cluster data suggested that three hIAPP systems are prone to flexible structural features. Further analysis confirmed that the histidine related H‐bonding networks were detected in hIAPP(δ) (N14‐H18) and hIAPP(p) (N14‐H18 and F15‐H18). Moreover, based on overall hIAPP(δ), hIAPP(ϵ), and hIAPP(p) equilibration trajectories, we discovered both sheet and helix structural features in basin of free energy landscape. Our current study contributes to the understanding on conformational changes of hIAPP due to histidine behaviors, which could lead to new insights into histidine behaviors mechanisms.

Fluorescent protein tagging promotes phase separation and alters the aggregation pathway of huntingtin exon-1

Fluorescent protein tags are convenient tools for tracking the aggregation states of amyloidogenic or phase separating proteins, but the effect of the tags is often not well understood. Here, we investigated the impact of a C-terminal red fluorescent protein (RFP) tag on the phase separation of huntingtin exon-1 (Httex1), an N-terminal portion of the huntingtin protein that aggregates in Huntington's disease. We found that the RFP-tagged Httex1 rapidly formed micron-sized, phase separated states in the presence of a crowding agent. The formed structures had a rounded appearance and were highly dynamic according to electron paramagnetic resonance and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, suggesting that the phase separated state was largely liquid in nature. Remarkably, the untagged protein did not undergo any detectable liquid condensate formation under the same conditions. In addition to strongly promoting liquid-liquid phase separation, the RFP tag also facilitated fibril formation, as the tag-dependent liquid condensates rapidly underwent a liquid-to-solid transition. The rate of fibril formation under these conditions was significantly faster than that of the untagged protein. When expressed in cells, the RFP-tagged Httex1 formed larger aggregates with different antibody staining patterns compared to untagged Httex1. Collectively, these data reveal that the addition of a fluorescent protein tag significantly impacts liquid and solid phase separations of Httex1 invitro and leads to altered aggregation in cells. Considering that the tagged Httex1 is commonly used to study the mechanisms of Httex1 misfolding and toxicity, our findings highlight the importance to validate the conclusions with untagged protein.

Investigation of serum amyloid a within animal species focusing on the 1-25 amino acid region

AA amyloidosis, characterized by the misfolding of serum amyloid A (SAA) protein, is the most common amyloid protein disorder across multiple species. SAA is a positive-acute phase protein synthesized by the liver in response to inflammation or stress, and it normally associates with high-density lipoprotein at its N-terminus. In this study, we focused on the 1-25 amino acid (aa) region of the complete 104 aa SAA sequence to examine the aggregation propensity of AA amyloid. A library comprising eight peptides from different species was assembled for analysis. To access the aggregation propensity of each peptide region, a bioinformatic study was conducted using the algorithm TANGO. Congo red (CR) binding assays, Thioflavin T (ThT) assays, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were utilized to evaluate whether the synthesized peptides formed amyloid-like fibrils. All synthetic SAA 1-25 congeners resulted in amyloid-like fibrils formation (per CR and/or ThT staining and TEM detection) at the exception of the ferret SAA1-25 fragment, which generated plaque-like materials by TEM. Ten residues were preserved among SAA 1-25 congeners resulting in amyloid-like fibrils, i.e. F6, E9, A10, G13, D16, M17, A20, Y21, D23, and M24. Amino acid residues highlighted by this study may have a role in increasing the propensity for amyloid-like fibril formation. This study put an emphasis on region 1-25 in the mechanism of SAA1 misfolding.

Comparison of force fields to study the zinc-finger containing protein NPL4, a target for disulfiram in cancer therapy

Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are a powerful approach to studying the structure and dynamics of proteins related to health and disease. Advances in the MD field allow modeling proteins with high accuracy. However, modeling metal ions and their interactions with proteins is still challenging. NPL4 is a zinc-binding protein and works as a cofactor for p97 to regulate protein homeostasis. NPL4 is of biomedical importance and has been proposed as the target of disulfiram, a drug recently repurposed for cancer treatment. Experimental studies proposed that the disulfiram metabolites, bis-(diethyldithiocarbamate)‑copper and cupric ions, induce NPL4 misfolding and aggregation. However, the molecular details of their interactions with NPL4 and consequent structural effects are still elusive. Here, biomolecular simulations can help to shed light on the related structural details. To apply MD simulations to NPL4 and its interaction with copper the first important step is identifying a suitable force field to describe the protein in its zinc-bound states. We examined different sets of non-bonded parameters because we want to study the misfolding mechanism and cannot rule out that the zinc may detach from the protein during the process and copper replaces it. We investigated the force-field ability to model the coordination geometry of the metal ions by comparing the results from MD simulations with optimized geometries from quantum mechanics (QM) calculations using model systems of NPL4. Furthermore, we investigated the performance of a force field including bonded parameters to treat copper ions in NPL4 that we obtained based on QM calculations.

Non-Native Structures of Apomyoglobin and Apoleghemoglobin in Folding Intermediates Related to the Protein Misfolding.

Protein folding is essential for a polypeptide chain to acquire its proper structure and function. Globins are a superfamily of ubiquitous heme-binding α-helical proteins whose function is principally to regulate oxygen homoeostasis. In this review, we explore the hierarchical helical formation in the globin proteins apomyoglobin and leghemoglobin, and we discuss the existence of non-native and misfolded structures occurring during the course of folding to its native state. This review summarizes the research aimed at characterizing and comparing the equilibrium and kinetic intermediates, as well as delineating the complete folding pathway at a molecular level, in order to answer the following questions: "What is the mechanism of misfolding via a folding intermediate? Does the non-native structure stabilize the contemporary intermediate structure? Does the non-native structure induce slower folding?" The role of the non-native structures in the folding intermediate related to misfolding is also discussed.

Synucleinopathies Take Their Toll: Are TLRs a Way to Go?

The misfolding and subsequent abnormal accumulation and aggregation of α-Synuclein (αSyn) as insoluble fibrils in Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites is the pathological hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD) and several neurodegenerative disorders. A combination of environmental and genetic factors is linked to αSyn misfolding, among which neuroinflammation is recognized to play an important role. Indeed, a number of studies indicate that a Toll-like receptor (TLR)-mediated neuroinflammation might lead to a dopaminergic neural loss, suggesting that TLRs could participate in the pathogenesis of PD as promoters of immune/neuroinflammatory responses. Here we will summarize our current understanding on the mechanisms of αSyn aggregation and misfolding, focusing on the contribution of TLRs to the progression of α-synucleinopathies and speculating on their link with the non-motor disturbances associated with aging and neurodegenerative disorders.

The α-Synuclein Monomer May Have Different Misfolding Mechanisms in the Induction of α-Synuclein Fibrils with Different Polymorphs

The aggregation of alpha-synuclein (α-Syn) is closely related to the occurrence of some neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease. The misfolding of α-Syn monomer plays a key role in the formation of aggregates and extension of fibril. However, the misfolding mechanism of α-Syn remains elusive. Here, three different α-Syn fibrils (isolated from a diseased human brain, generated by in vitro cofactor-tau induction, and obtained by in vitro cofactor-free induction) were selected for the study. The misfolding mechanisms of α-Syn were uncovered by studying the dissociation of the boundary chains based on the conventional molecular dynamics (MD) and Steered MD simulations. The results showed that the dissociation paths of the boundary chains in the three systems were different. According to the reverse process of dissociation, we concluded that in the human brain system, the binding of the monomer and template starts from the C-terminal and gradually misfolds toward the N-terminal. In the cofactor-tau system, the monomer binding starts from residues 58-66 (contain β3), followed by the C-terminal coil (residues 67-79). Then, the N-terminal coil (residues 36-41) and residues 50-57 (contain β2) bind to the template, followed by residues 42-49 (contain β1). In the cofactor-free system, two misfolding paths were found. One is that the monomer binds to the N/C-terminal (β1/β6) and then binds to the remaining residues. The other one is that the monomer binds sequentially from the C- to N-terminal, similar to the human brain system. Furthermore, in the human brain and cofactor-tau systems, electrostatic interactions (especially from residues 58-66) are the main driving force during the misfolding process, whereas in the cofactor-free system, the contributions of electrostatic and van der Waals interactions are comparable. These results may provide a deeper understanding for the misfolding and aggregation mechanism of α-Syn.

Functional, pathogenic, and pharmacological roles of protein folding intermediates.

Protein expression and function in eukaryotic cells are tightly harmonized processes modulated by the combination of different layers of regulation, including transcription, processing, stability, and translation of messenger RNA, as well as assembly, maturation, sorting, recycling, and degradation of polypeptides. Integrating all these pathways and the protein quality control machinery, deputed to avoid the production and accumulation of aberrantly folded proteins, determines protein homeostasis. Over the last decade, the combined development of accurate time-resolved experimental techniques and efficient computer simulations has opened the possibility of investigating biological mechanisms at atomic resolution with physics-based models. A meaningful example is the reconstruction of protein folding pathways at atomic resolution, which has enabled the characterization of the folding kinetics of biologically relevant globular proteins consisting of a few hundred amino acids. Combining these innovative computational technologies with rigorous experimental approaches reveals the existence of non-native metastable states transiently appearing along the folding process of such proteins. Here, we review the primary evidence indicating that these protein folding intermediates could play roles in disparate biological processes, from the posttranslational regulation of protein expression to disease-relevant protein misfolding mechanisms. Finally, we discuss how the information encoded into protein folding pathways could be exploited to design an entirely new generation of pharmacological agents capable of promoting the selective degradation of protein targets.

Gold Nanoclusters Enhance the Efficacy of the Polymer-Based Chaperone in Restoring and Maintaining the Native Conformation of Human Islet Amyloid Polypeptide.

The misfolding and un-natural fibrillation of proteins/peptides are associated with many conformation diseases, such as human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) in type 2 diabetes (T2D). Inspired by molecular chaperones maintaining protein homeostasis in vivo, many polymer-based artificial chaperones were introduced to regulate protein/peptide folding and fibrillation. However, the pure polymer chaperones prefer to agglomerate into large-size micelles in the physiological environment and thus lose their chaperone functions, which greatly restricts the application of polymer-based chaperones. Here, we designed and prepared a core-shell artificial chaperone based on a dozen poly-(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-N-acryloyl-O-methylated-l-arginine) (PNAMR) anchored on a gold-nanocluster (AuNC) core. The introduction of the AuNC core significantly reduced the size and enhanced the efficacy and stability of polymer-based artificial chaperones. The PNAMR@AuNCs, with a diameter of 2.5 ± 0.5 nm, demonstrated exceptional ability in maintaining the natively unfolded conformation of protein away from the misfolding and the following fibrillation by directly binding to the natively unfolded monomolecular hIAPP and hence in preventing their conversion into toxic oligomers. More excitingly, the PNAMR@AuNCs were able to restore the natural unfolded conformation of hIAPP via dissolving the β-sheet-rich hIAPP fibrils. Considering the uniform molecular mechanism of protein misfolding and fibrillation in conformation disorders, this finding provides a generic therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases and other conformation diseases by using PNAMR@AuNC artificial chaperones to restore and maintain the native conformation of amyloid proteins.

In silico analysis of SOD1 aggregation inhibition modes of tertiary amine pyrazolone and pyrano coumarin ferulate as ALS drug candidates.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease, the familial form (fALS) of which is often cognate to mutations in the antioxidant enzyme Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) leading to misfolding and aggregation. Two small molecules, a tertiary amine pyrazolone (TAP) and a pyrano coumarin ferulate (PCF) were suggested to be ALS drug candidates following experimental observation of their ability to inhibit SOD1 protein misfolding and aggregation. The present work aims at computational investigation of these experimentally proposed drug candidates to gain insight into their mechanism of SOD1 misfolding and aggregation inhibition. On the basis of molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, MM-PBSA and per-residue energy decomposition analysis, we examined the specific interactions of TAP and PCF with three probable binding sites of SOD1, namely, dimeric interface cavity, W32 and, UMP binding sites. Results suggest that the binding of TAP at W32 and at UMP sites are least probable due to absence of any favorable interaction. The binding of TAP to dimeric cavity is also unstable due to strong unfavorable interactions. In case of PCF, binding at the UMP site is least probable while binding at dimeric cavity is accompanied by unfavorable interactions. PCF, however, exhibits stable binding with the W32 binding site of SOD1 by stabilizing the solvent accessible hydrophobic residues, which otherwise would have acted as contact points for aggregation. Thus the results imply that compound PCF functions as an inhibitior of SOD1 misfolding/aggregation through direct interaction with the protein SOD1 at the W32 binding site. However, TAP is likely to act as an inhibitor through a different mechanism rather than direct interaction with the protein SOD1. These results apart from reinforcing previous experimental findings, shed light on the probable mechanism of action of the proposed drug candidates.

New variants of alpha-1-antitrypsin: structural simulations and clinical expression

Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is characterized by reduced serum levels of the AAT protein and predisposes to liver and lung disease. The characterization at structural level of novel pathogenic SERPINA1 mutants coding for circulating AAT could provide novel insights into the mechanisms of AAT misfolding. The present study aimed to provide a practical framework for the identification and analysis of new AAT mutations, combining structural simulations and clinical data. We analysed a total of five mutations (four not previously described) in a total of six subjects presenting moderate to severe AATD: Gly95Alafs*18, Val210Glu, Asn247Ser, Pi*S + Asp341His and Pi*S + Leu383Phe + Lys394Ile. Clinical data, genotyping and phenotyping assays, structural mapping, and conformational characterization through molecular dynamic (MD) simulations were developed and combined. Newly discovered AAT missense variants were localized both on the interaction surface and the hydrophobic core of the protein. Distribution of mutations across the structure revealed Val210Glu at the solvent exposed s4C strand and close to the "Gate" region. Asn247Ser was located on the accessible surface, which is important for glycan attachment. On the other hand, Asp341His, Leu383Phe were mapped close to the "breach" and "shutter" regions. MD analysis revealed the reshaping of local interactions around the investigated substitutions that have varying effects on AAT conformational flexibility, hydrophobic packing, and electronic surface properties. The most severe structural changes were observed in the double- and triple-mutant (Pi*S + Asp341His and Pi*S + Leu383Phe + Lys394Ile) molecular models. The two carriers presented impaired lung function. The results characterize five variants, four of them previously unknown, of the SERPINA1 gene, which define new alleles contributing to the deficiency of AAT. Rare variants might be more frequent than expected, and therefore, in discordant cases, standardized screening of the S and Z alleles needs complementation with gene sequencing and structural approaches. The utility of computational modelling for providing supporting evidence of the pathogenicity of rare single nucleotide variations is discussed.

Proteinopathies: Deciphering Physiology and Mechanisms to Develop Effective Therapies for Neurodegenerative Diseases.

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are a cluster of diseases marked by progressive neuronal loss, axonal transport blockage, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and aggregation of misfolded proteins. NDs are more prevalent beyond the age of 50, and their symptoms often include motor and cognitive impairment. Even though various proteins are involved in different NDs, the mechanisms of protein misfolding and aggregation are very similar. Recently, several studies have discovered that, like prions, these misfolded proteins have the inherent capability of translocation from one neuron to another, thus having far-reaching implications for understanding the processes involved in the onset and progression of NDs, as well as the development of innovative therapy and diagnostic options. These misfolded proteins can also influence the transcription of other proteins and form aggregates, tangles, plaques, and inclusion bodies, which then accumulate in the CNS, leading to neuronal dysfunction and neurodegeneration. This review demonstrates protein misfolding and aggregation in NDs, and similarities and differences between different protein aggregates have been discussed. Furthermore, we have also reviewed the disposal of protein aggregates, the various molecular machinery involved in the process, their regulation, and how these molecular mechanisms are targeted to build innovative therapeutic and diagnostic procedures. In addition, the landscape of various therapeutic interventions for targeting protein aggregation for the effective prevention or treatment of NDs has also been discussed.