Mirror Gazing Research Articles

The effect of self-focused attention during mirror gazing on body image evaluations, appearance-related imagery, and urges to mirror gaze

Background and objectivesMirror gazing has been linked to poor body image. Cognitive-behavioral models propose that mirror gazing induces self-focused attention. This activates appearance-related imagery, increases body dissatisfaction, and promotes further mirror gazing. However, evidence for these relationships remains scarce. Our study experimentally investigated how self-focused attention impacts overall and facial appearance satisfaction, perceived attractiveness, distress about appearance and disliked features, vividness and emotional quality of appearance-related imagery, and urges to mirror gaze. Baseline body dysmorphic concerns were studied as a moderator. MethodsSingaporean undergraduates (Mage = 21.22, SDage = 1.62; 35 females, 28 males) were randomly assigned to high or low self-focused attention during a mirror gazing task. Dependent variables were measured with visual analogue scales, and body dysmorphic concerns with the Body Image Disturbance Questionnaire (BIDQ). Analysis of variance and moderation analyses were conducted. ResultsSelf-focused attention lowered overall and facial appearance satisfaction. Perceived attractiveness decreased only in individuals with high baseline body dysmorphic concerns. Contrary to predictions, distress, appearance-related imagery, and urges to mirror gaze were unaffected. LimitationsThis study used a non-clinical sample. The BIDQ has not been psychometrically validated in Singaporean samples. ConclusionsSelf-focused attention during mirror gazing lowers positive body image evaluations. Individuals with higher body dysmorphic concerns are particularly vulnerable to low perceived attractiveness.

What can my body do for me? Guided body-functionality mirror gazing task improved college women’s body appreciation and body functionality orientation

Objective: Focusing on body functionality – what the body can do – may benefit women’s body image. This pilot study examined the effects of focusing on body functionality appreciation during an audio-guided mirror gazing task (F-MGT). Participants: 101 college women, M(SD)AGE = 19.49(1.31), were alternately assigned to F-MGT or a comparison with no guidance on how to examine the body, directed attention mirror gazing task (DA-MGT). Methods: Participants self-reported pre- and post-MGT body appreciation, state appearance satisfaction, and orientation to and satisfaction with physical functionality. Results: Group interactions were significant for body appreciation and functionality orientation. DA-MGT decreased body appreciation from pre- to post-MGT; F-MGT did not change. There were no significant interactions in post-MGT state appearance satisfaction or functionality satisfaction, though state appearance satisfaction increased significantly in F-MGT. Conclusions: Integrating body functionality may buffer against harmful effects of mirror gazing. Given F-MGT’s brevity, additional work must assess its potential as an intervention technique.

Strange-face-in-the-mirror illusions: specific effects on derealization, depersonalization, and dissociative identity

ABSTRACT Anomalous strange-face illusions (SFIs) are produced when mirror gazing under a low level of face illumination. In contrast to past studies in which an observer’s task was to pay attention to the reflected face and to perceive potential facial changes, the present research used a mirror gazing task (MGT) that instructed participants to fixate their gaze on a 4-mm hole in a glass mirror. The participants’ eye-blink rates were thus measured without priming any facial changes. Twenty-one healthy young individuals participated in the MGT and a control panel-fixation task (staring at a hole in a gray non-reflective panel). The Revised Strange-Face Questionnaire (SFQ-R) indexed derealization (deformations of facial features; FD), depersonalization (bodily face detachment; BD), and dissociative identity (new or unknown identities; DI) scales. Mirror-fixation increased FD, BD, and DI scores compared to panel-fixation. In mirror-fixation, FD scores revealed fading specific to facial features, distinct from “classical” Troxler- and Brewster-fading. In mirror-fixation, eye-blink rates correlated negatively with FD scores. Panel-fixation produced low BD scores, and, in a few participants, face pareidolias as detected on FD scores. Females were more prone to early derealization and males to compartmentalization of a dissociative identity. SFQ-R may be a valuable instrument for measuring face-specific dissociation (FD, BD, DI) produced by MGT. Use of MGT and panel-fixation task for differential diagnoses between schizophrenia and dissociative identity disorder is discussed.

Relationship between Corticospinal Excitability While Gazing at the Mirror and Motor Imagery Ability

Mirror therapy (MT) helps stroke survivors recover motor function. Previous studies have reported that an individual's motor imagery ability is related to the areas of brain activity during motor imagery and the effectiveness of motor imagery training. However, the relationship between MT and motor imagery ability and between corticospinal tract excitability during mirror gazing, an important component of MT, and motor imagery ability is unclear. This study determined whether the motor-evoked potential (MEP) amplitude while gazing at the mirror relates to participants' motor imagery abilities. Twenty-four healthy right-handed adults (seven males) were recruited. Transcranial magnetic stimulation was performed while gazing at the mirror, and MEP of the first dorsal interosseous muscle of the right hand were measured. Motor imagery ability was measured using the Kinesthetic and Visual Imagery Questionnaire (KVIQ), which assesses the vividness of motor imagery ability. Additionally, a mental chronometry (MC) task was used to assess time aspects. The results showed a significant moderate correlation between changes in MEP amplitude values while gazing at the mirror, as compared with resting conditions, and assessment scores of KVIQ. This study shows that corticospinal excitability because of mirror gazing may be related to the vividness of motor imagery ability.

Face yourself: The social neuroscience of mirror gazing

In philosophical and psychological accounts alike, it has been claimed that mirror gazing is like looking at ourselves as others. Social neuroscience and social psychology offer support for this view by showing that we use similar brain and cognitive mechanisms during perception of both others' and our own face. I analyse these premises to investigate the factors affecting the perception of one's own mirror image. I analyse mechanisms and processes involved in face perception, mimicry, and emotion recognition, and defend the following argument: because perception of others' face is affected by our feelings toward them, it is likely that feelings toward ourselves affect our responses to the mirror image. One implication is that negative self-feelings can affect mirror gazing instantiating a vicious cycle where the negative emotional response reflects a previously acquired attitude toward oneself. I conclude by discussing implications of this view for psychology and social studies.

Cognitive-affective reactions to a non-judgmental and judgmental mirror gazing task in individuals with body dysmorphic concerns

Background and objectivesThe look into the mirror represents a typical trigger situation for people with body dysmorphic concerns. Mirror exposure on the other hand is commonly used in the treatment of Body Dysmorphic Disorder even though little is known about its precise effects. This study aimed to investigate cognitive-affective processes related to mirror gazing. MethodsA total of 125 individuals (screening for body dysmorphic concerns: NBDD+ = 56, negative NBDD- = 69) participated in a laboratory study using a guided 10-min mirror gazing task. Participants were randomized to one of two experimental conditions, a non-judgmental and judgmental description of the own body during mirror gazing. Distress, self-hostile cognitions and post-event processing were assessed after the task and at follow-up. ResultsParticipants with body dysmorphic concerns showed higher values regarding subjective appearance distortion, stress induced by the exposure, distress, self-hostile cognitions and post-event processing compared to the symptom negative group. The two conditions did not yield differential effects. LimitationsThe short duration of the mirror gazing and the only internal description of the body may have contributed to a missing effect for the approach. ConclusionsThe results indicate the importance of cognitive and affective processes in reaction to mirror exposure. They support the cognitive model of BDD and suggest post-event processing as a relevant factor requiring further investigation in future research.

Effects of Self-Esteem on Self-Viewing: An Eye-Tracking Investigation on Mirror Gazing.

While some people enjoy looking at their faces in the mirror, others experience emotional distress. Despite these individual differences concerning self-viewing in the mirror, systematic investigations on this topic have not been conducted so far. The present eye-tracking study examined whether personality traits (self-esteem, narcissism propensity, self-disgust) are associated with gaze behavior (gaze duration, fixation count) during free mirror viewing of one’s face. Sixty-eight adults (mean age = 23.5 years; 39 females, 29 males) viewed their faces in the mirror and watched a video of an unknown person matched for gender and age (control condition) for 90 s each. The computed regression analysis showed that higher self-esteem was associated with a shorter gaze duration for both self-face and other-face. This effect may reflect a less critical evaluation of the faces.

Dissociation during Mirror Gazing Test in psychogenic nonepileptic seizures and functional movement disorders

IntroductionPsychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES) and functional movement disorders (FMD) seem to represent the two ends of a continuum where different clinical phenotypes represent the manifestation of a common framework, involving dissociation. The aim of the present study was to assess dissociation and its subcomponents through the Mirror Gazing Test (MGT) in these functional neurological disorders (FNDs). Materials and methodsEleven patients with PNES, 17 with FMD, and 18 healthy controls (HCs) underwent a 10-minute MGT and completed the Strange Face Questionnaire (SFQ), an ad-hoc questionnaire assessing the sensations and perceptions they had looking in the mirror, and a short version of the Clinician-Administered Dissociative States Scale (CADSS). ResultsPatients with PNES, FMD, and HCs did not differ at the total score of the SFQ. Patients with PNES scored higher than HCs at the SFQ-subscale Dissociative Identity/Compartmentalization, at the CADSS Total Score and at its subscale Dissociative Amnesia, while patients with FMD scored higher than HCs at the CADSS subscale Depersonalization. ConclusionsPatients with FMD reported more sensations falling in the detachment facet of dissociation, while patients with PNES in the compartmentalization one. We hypothesized that both facets of dissociation might be important pathophysiological processes for PNES and FMD and that different instruments (self-report clinical scales vs experimental tasks) might be able to detect different facets in different populations because they assess, respectively, “trait” and “state” dissociation.

The Psychological perspective of cosmetologist’s work

Background: Cosmetic institutions are an important element in human life, providing the opportunity for personal development. The study aims to analyze psychologist’s competence of cosmetologists and client self-esteem to establish potential ways of psychological contact between a cosmetologist and his/her client. Methods: A survey of 156 cosmetologists of Irkutsk city and region was conducted to determine awareness and the need to obtain knowledge in the field of psychology and psychiatry for cosmetologists. A training program has been developed that will allow a cosmetologist to expand his/her knowledge in the field of psychological characteristics of patients with a dermatological profile and improve the quality of cosmetology services. Cosmetologists generally uncertainly assess their abilities in recognizing the psychological status, as well as the needs of a patient. A total of 259 female clients were exposed to a mirror gazing technique for psychological correction. Results: The psychological task of a cosmetologist is to constantly accompany and advise a client. The self-esteem survey revealed a positive shift towards accepting the presence of other people in one’s life and taking a confident and active position in problem-solving. Conclusions: Systematization of the obtained data will make it possible to distinguish different types of patient characteristics, which is a necessary and indispensable condition for successful correction, not so much cosmetological as psychological. A technique has been developed to deal with a depressive state in patients, including a comprehensive cosmetology-psychological approach divided into 5 stages.

Visual perception and dissociation during Mirror Gazing Test in patients with anorexia nervosa: a preliminary study

PurposeIt has been widely shown that dissociative features might play a fundamental role in producing body image distortions in patients affected by eating disorders. Here, we hypothesize that the Mirror Gazing Test (MGT), a task consisting in mirror exposure in a condition of sensory deprivation, would elicit dissociative symptoms in a group of patients with anorexia nervosa (AN).MethodsFourteen patients with AN and fourteen healthy controls (HC) underwent a 10 min MGT and completed the Strange Face Questionnaire and a short version of the Clinician-Administered Dissociative States Scale, along with a psychological assessment for eating disorders psychopathology, anxiety and depression.ResultsAN patients reported a higher number of strange-face apparitions and dissociative sensations than HC during the MGT. Dissociative identity (compartmentalization of two or more identities) and depersonalization (detachment of bodily-self) were much higher in patients with AN than in HC. These findings were correlated with body dissatisfaction and disruption in interoceptive awareness.ConclusionDissociation and body image dysfunction are strongly connected in the pathophysiology of anorexia nervosa. Future research should investigate the same aspects in other psychiatric conditions characterized by body image distortions, such as Body Dysmorphic Disorder.Level of evidenceI, Experimental studies.

Experimental induction of self-focused attention via mirror gazing: Effects on body image, appraisals, body-focused shame, and self-esteem

Cognitive and behavioural models of body dysmorphic disorder posit that selective self-focused attention via mirror gazing plays a key role in the aetiology and maintenance of the disorder. However, there is little empirical support for these theoretical claims. This study aimed to induce self-focused attention via mirror gazing to examine the proposed theoretical effects on body image, distress, body-focused shame, and self-esteem. Fifty-one non-clinical participants (78.43% female) were randomly allocated to one of the two conditions: low self-focused attention (i.e., looking into a mirror placed 100 cm/ 39 in away) vs. high self-focused attention (i.e., focusing on a disliked part in a mirror placed 10 cm/ 4 in away). Following 5 min of mirror gazing, the high self-focused attention condition experienced decreased satisfaction with appearance, perceived attractiveness, and self-esteem, and increased distress about appearance, distress about disliked parts, urges to change appearance, and body-focused shame. Approaching the mirror from a distance appeared to have no effect. Findings are consistent with theories suggesting that self-focused attention and mirror behaviours might contribute to the development of body dysmorphic disorder and maintain its psychological effects.

Body Dysmorphic, Obsessive-Compulsive, and Social Anxiety Disorder Beliefs as Predictors of In Vivo Stressor Responding.

This study tested the potential transdiagnostic nature of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and social anxiety disorder (SAD) beliefs, in addition to testing the specificity of those beliefs, in predicting how individuals responded to symptom-specific stressors. Participants included 127 adults (75% women) with a broad range of symptom severity. Path analysis was used to evaluate whether specific maladaptive beliefs predicted distress in response to symptom-relevant stressors over and above other beliefs and baseline distress. SAD beliefs emerged as a significant predictor of distress in response to a mirror gazing (BDD-relevant), a thought (OCD-relevant), and a public speaking (SAD-relevant) task, controlling for other disorder beliefs and baseline distress. BDD beliefs were also a robust predictor of BDD stressor responding. Results suggest that social anxiety-relevant beliefs may function as a transdiagnostic risk factor that predicts in vivo symptoms across a range of problem areas.

'I Once Stared at Myself in the Mirror for Eleven Hours.' Exploring mirror gazing in participants with body dysmorphic disorder.

This study provides insight into the lived experience of mirror gazing using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis and Photo Elicitation. A total of 10 participants who identified themselves as suffering from body dysmorphic disorder took photographs that related to their body dysmorphic disorder experience. Photographs were discussed in interviews. It was found that mirror gazing in body dysmorphic disorder is an embodied phenomenon. Motivations for mirror gazing were confusing, complex and masochistic. Overall, participants described mirrors as being controlling, imprisoning and disempowering forces that had a crippling and paralysing effect on life. It is argued that health psychologists must ask clients about their embodied experiences when looking in the mirror.

The effect of self-focused attention and mood on appearance dissatisfaction after mirror-gazing: An experimental study

Background and objectivesSelf-focused attention is hypothesized to be a maintenance factor in body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). The aim of this study was to use an experimental paradigm to test this hypothesis by studying the effect of self-focused attention during mirror-gazing on appearance dissatisfaction. MethodsAn experimental group design was used, in which 173 women were randomly allocated to one of three conditions before mirror-gazing for 2 min: (a) external focus of attention, (b) self-focus of attention, and (c) self-focus of attention with a negative mood induction. ResultsAfter mirror-gazing, participants across all groups rated themselves as being more dissatisfied with their appearance. In both the self-focus conditions, there was an increase in sadness from pre to post mirror gazing, and there was a significant difference in focus of attention for participants in the self-focused, mood-induced group from pre to post manipulation, suggesting mood induction had more of an effect than focus of attention. Limitations(1) there was no condition involving an external focus with a negative mood induction, and (2) due to the level of information provided to patients on the nature of the task, we cannot rule out demand characteristics as an influencing factor on our results. ConclusionsSelf-focused attention during mirror-gazing may act indirectly to increase appearance dissatisfaction via the effect of negative mood. Further studies are required to establish the relative contribution of self-focused attention and negative mood to increases in appearance dissatisfaction as a function of mirror-gazing.

Mirror Gazing by Warren Motte

Reviewed by: Mirror Gazing by Warren Motte Andrew Sobanet Warren Motte. Mirror Gazing. Champaign, Illinois: Dalkey Archive Press, 2014. 295pp. When I was an undergraduate, I had a professor who pointed out to my class on twentieth-century French theater the importance of mirror scenes. I do not remember the specifics of the lesson, either its theoretical underpinnings [End Page 308] or the specific mirror scene we were studying. But I did internalize the central point of the matter: that mirror scenes are noteworthy. So in the 20-plus years since I took that class, I have paid special attention to mirror scenes in books, films, plays, and television shows. And it is indeed true: mirror scenes, across genres and media, often mark or coincide with a crucial narrative moment. Be it an instance of self-awareness, a pivotal moment of transformation, or a marker of alienation from the self, mirror scenes frequently indicate to the reader or viewer a key element about the mirror-gazing character in question. Often some sort of commentary on the narrative itself, mirror scenes can “reflect” a thematic or formal element central to a story. Take, for example, three mirror scenes in L’Etranger: one in Meursault’s apartment, when we don’t see him in his mirror at all; a second, in his prison cell, when his reflection in his pannikin (“ma gamelle de fer”) won’t smile at him, despite his efforts; and a third, when Meursault (by looking in that same tin cup a moment later, this time with the help of the sun’s last light) acknowledges his current state of seriousness as a prisoner. The first two scenes complement other elements in the text indicating that Meursault is, in many regards, unknowable and other, even to himself. The third scene suggests that Meursault’s sense of self is evolving, an evolution that continues through the final lines of the novel. I have used such scenes in almost all of my literature classes—while teaching works by Camus, Sartre, Colette, Queneau, and Marie Redonnet, among others—to show my students how mirror scenes can serve as gateways into understanding how narratives function and how characters are formed. Warren Motte, in his most recent book, Mirror Gazing, delves deeply into the topic that he brought up in that French theater class in which I sat as an undergraduate more than two decades ago. His book is based on more than three decades of reading, collecting, and categorizing mirror scenes. The full scope of the project renders clear what a voracious reader Motte is; over the years, he has read and categorized approximately 10,000 such scenes. That is not a typo: ten thousand scenes, an incredible number. Those roughly 10,000 scenes appear in around 1,500 books from a wide range of periods and genres. The set of authors covered in Mirror Gazing is huge and diverse. Ovid, for instance, lies in close proximity to William S. Burroughs. Barack Obama, Christine Montalbetti, and Agatha Christie share space with Proust and Whitman. In one paragraph, chosen more or less at random, Motte analyzes scenes in books by William DeAndrea, Len [End Page 309] Deighton, Harold Bloom, Carlos Fuentes, Alejo Carpentier, Patrick Deville, and Harry Mathews (208–09). From start to finish, Mirror Gazing has a pleasant ludic quality to it. Motte employs abundantly the first-person singular in order to continually remind the reader that his book is about him looking at himself as a reader and cataloguer, and that this text is the reflection of an activity that has been a part of his distinguished readerly life since he was a graduate student. Indeed, Motte’s engaging, playful, and highly self-referential investigation involves considerable doubling and multiple layers of self, as do many of mirror scenes he so brilliantly analyzes and so ably situates into context (both in his book, and in the books from which they came). Incredibly, Motte manages to distill the thousands of mirror scenes he has catalogued into three basic categories, all of which revolve around degrees of self-recognition: simple recognition; difficult recognition; and failed recognition. Now, those categories as I have just outlined...

Exploring Psychomanteum as a Psi-Conducive State of Consciousness

The mirror gazing procedure termed the “psychomanteum” was developed by the world renowned psychiatrist Dr. Raymond Moody. It was designed to facilitate reunion experiences with deceased individuals, as a means of addressing the feelings surrounding bereavement. Although the modern psychomanteum is not normally employed to seek extra-sensory perception (ESP) information about the future, it may be that the psychomanteum is psi-conductive. For example, there are many similarities and differences between psychomanteum experiences and accounts of hypnagogic/hypnopompic imagery, which is conducive to ESP. The aim is of this paper was to explore whether the psychomanteum technique encourages a psi-conducive state of consciousness, which would result in scoring that is significantly above mean chance expectation (MCE). One hundred and thirty participants (92 females and 38 males; Mean age= 47.44) were recruited by announcements in newspapers and our web site. Under psychomanteum condition, psi-hitting was obtained (30.8% above MCE); however, under no-psychomanteum (“control”) condition, 29.2% was obtained (where 25% was expected). The results differ slightly from MCE in the psychomanteum condition (p= .02, one-tailed) in comparison with no-psychomanteum condition, but no significant differences were found. A number of positive correlations were also found, for instance, participants who attained higher scores on auditory and visual hallucinations tended to demonstrate psi-hitting.

Mirror Gazing par by Warren Motte

the period. One of the highlights of the volume is Élodie Saliceto’s perceptive study of Chateaubriand’s Vie de Rancé, a work whose generic ambiguity puzzled readers at the time, but which today seems quite modern. Equally impressive is Mombert’s treatment of Chateaubriand’s contemporary, Lamartine, who assumed the role of “biographe de gare”(207), intent on educating“ceux que l’époque exclut de l’échange savant comme de la vie politique: le peuple,les femmes,les enfants”(208).The final part of the volume, illustrating “usages littéraires du biographique” (233), examines four instances of biographical writing that have helped forge the reputation (for better or for worse) of well-known literary figures. Melaine Folliard chronicles, for example, the persistent efforts of Théophile de Viau to shape the reception of his own work, and Laurent Thirouin documents the systematic campaign, by Pascal’s sister initially and subsequently by his nephew,to promote the reputation of the author of Les pensées as a“savant chrétien”(278). In quite a different vein, Edwige Keller-Rahbé studies“la construction d’une légende libertine autour de Mme de Villedieu” (297), resulting in a negative portrayal that persisted well into the twentieth century.Finally,Laetitia Perret illustrates how educational authorities under the Third Republic carefully tailored versions of Montesquieu’s biography in order to present to lycéens the desired image of an author “cultivant la sagesse à l’écart des passions”(353). The editors provide a bibliography for the volume as a whole as well as summaries, in French and—rather unexpectedly—in English, of each article. As is frequently the case with collections of this nature, this one will appeal above all to readers whose own interests match those of individual contributors, but certainly the volume as a whole is professionally done. University of Kansas John T. Booker Motte,Warren. Mirror Gazing. Champaign, IL: Dalkey Archive, 2014. Pp. 205. ISBN 978-1-62-897014-2. $35. Idiosyncratic and unfettered, this joyfully experimental book owes its genesis to a peculiar note-taking practice that its author, a self-described “inveterate reader” (9), adopted some thirty years prior to its writing. When reading works of fiction of whatever provenance, in translation or in the original,“serious”or popular, and always from start to finish, Motte systematically flagged those scenes in which characters gaze into mirrors. An index card filed in the spine of each book marked these disparate “mirror scenes” for potential future use. Going public in 2004 with his archive at a lecture at Johns Hopkins (reproduced in extenso 11–29), Motte noted that his collection easily exceeded ten thousand in number—and this, without having ever sought out mirror scenes expressly or accepted references from third parties. What to do then with this wash of material? Taking cues from the consummate ludic modernist Vladimir Nabokov, he reflected that reading itself “can be conceived as a kind of 226 FRENCH REVIEW 89.2 Reviews 227 mirror-gazing”(25); our encounter with fiction, and especially with those fictions that bring mirrors into play, cannot but leave us“reflecting upon the strategies we bring to texts, testing them, retaining some, rejecting others”(26). The leading strategy retained in Mirror Gazing is subjective, exploratory, and projective, though as he moves through nearly one thousand examples Motte does set forth summary classifications (implicit, explicit, virtual, metaphorical, etc.). A good third of the passages glossed are from French sources, with Chevillard, Ernaux, Laurrent, Roubaud, and Toussaint figuring most prominently; Anglo-American and Scandinavian genre fiction (Le Carré, Rendell, Leonard; Høeg, Larsson, Sjöwall and Wahlöö) as well as Spanish-language works (Borges, Cortázar, García-Márquez, Pérez-Reverte) are widely referenced too. As we move from one excerpt to the next, we bear witness to the amateur’s passion for the diversity, uniqueness, and unruliness of his object; each scene takes on a rich yet painfully fleeting life of its own, affording only a glimpse of the surrounding work. Motte invites his readers, if not to follow his penchant, at least to allow that mirror gazing in fiction can usefully frame questions of self-knowledge, perception, and selfrecognition , the...

Mirrors of Skill and Renown: Women and Self-Fashioning in Early-Modern Dutch Art

Due to traditional biases that castigated women’s vanity in association with mirror gazing, self-representation was problematic for the female artist. Nevertheless, several early-modern Dutch women artists were able to subvert these prejudices and proclaim for themselves a fame previously restricted to men.

Mirror Gazing for Cultural Bereavement: A MixedMethods Study into the Impact of a Restricted Sensory Environment Meditation Process (Psychomanteum) on Culture Shock in Expatriates

Mirror Gazing for Cultural Bereavement: A MixedMethods Study into the Impact of a Restricted Sensory Environment Meditation Process (Psychomanteum) on Culture Shock in Expatriates

Mirror Gazing by Warren Motte

Mirror Gazing by Warren Motte