Minority Language Research Articles

Transition space: navigating dilemmas between mainstream and minority language classrooms

Abstract From policymaking to classroom practices, educational language policy implementation is a complex process filled with a cacophony of voices. This article examines policy implementation as it unfolds in micro-level transitions between mainstream classrooms and lessons in Sámi, Kven, or Finnish as a second language (SKF) in Norway. In such situations, SKF pupils need to leave their mainstream classes to receive their language instruction. To examine these transitions, I draw primarily from ethnographic data (e.g., classroom observations and semi-structured interviews) collected over several months in public schools in a town in Northern Norway. The findings suggest that organizational circumstances construct an in-between space, which I refer to as transition space, in which classroom actors can or need to negotiate and make choices about which of the theoretically co-available classes/activities will be chosen at which times. Such choices involve dilemmas and consequences on different scales. In this study, (1) I demonstrate how (non)movements between mainstream and SKF classes are made in time and space, and (2) I propose transition space as a new conceptualization for researching micro-level transitions in educational settings.

Education – Language – Identity

AbstractIn our paper we explore the intricate relationship between language and identity within the Hungarian language minority residing in Slovakia, examining the patterns of identification among high school students in Western Slovakia. Focusing on upper-secondary Hungarian-medium high school students, we investigate the role of the Hungarian language in shaping identity patterns and cultural unity. Through a mixed-methods approach, combining a quantitative questionnaire survey with qualitative focus group discussions, we address research questions regarding the construction of community belonging and adolescents' attachments to their region and homeland. Our study, encompassing 414 students from five Hungarian-medium gymnasiums, sheds light on the identity formation of the Hungarian national minority and highlights divergent tendencies between different age groups. The findings are part of an ongoing state-level research project.

Enhancing Metalinguistic Awareness Through Microlearning: A Comparative Analysis of Catalan Acquisition Between Multilingual French and English Learners

Knowing that previously learned languages may influence and support language learning among multilingual learners, equipping educators with diverse tools and resources empowers them to make more informed decisions in facilitating language learning. This holds particular significance in the case of minority languages like Catalan, where resource availability tends to be more restricted. This paper presents the findings of a project aimed at identifying the specific needs of multilingual B1 learners of Catalan. Using a comprehensive five-way classification system, the study compares the written productions of multilingual learners from different linguistic backgrounds (English and French L1 learners of Catalan). Analyses revealed a similar pattern regarding the nature of the errors, with incorrect word selections at the lexical-semantic, syntactic, and orthographic levels being the most frequent. Both groups differ significantly in terms of the distribution of errors; however, they did not differ when the analyses were conducted by error types. In both cases, the most frequent error was the lexical-semantic misselections, with false analogies and incomplete applications of rules explaining the errors. These findings led to the creation of just-in-time microlearning capsules tailored to address these issues. The microlearning capsules were designed to enhance students' metalinguistic awareness. Students' and teachers' perceptions of the tool were also assessed, and both groups predominantly viewed interlinguistic information as beneficial to language learning. This project highlights how microlearning, tailored to frequent errors, can bolster multilingual learners' acquisition and provides promising tools for language teaching.

Avances y retos del plurilingüismo en los poderes públicos del estado españolProgress and challenges of multilingualism in the public powers of the Spanish state

Abstract More than four decades after the promulgation of the Spanish Constitution of 1978, its provisions on linguistic matters have been defined, through a dynamic and constructive process, by the state and regional legislators, and by the jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court, to the point of allowing a significant advance of minority languages that had been neglected for decades. Over time, this dynamic, not exempt from controversy, as corresponds to an open and plural society, has revealed some imbalances due to the asymmetry of the constitutional linguistic model, for example the scarce presence and promotion of linguistic diversity at the state level.

Re‐righting the law: The impact of VRA preclearance on language minorities

AbstractThe 1975 Voting Rights Act (VRA) extended voting rights protections to language minority groups. Employing a triple difference design, we find that language minority voter turnout remained stable in VRA‐shielded counties while it eroded elsewhere. This led to a reallocation of state educational funds away from unshielded counties. As a result, shielded counties experienced preferable changes in their high school graduation rates, white‐collar job attainment, and income. We find most of these differences were driven by the VRA's preclearance provision.

Nine partner languages, one path: Minority language reading proficiency development among German two-way immersion students

BackgroundAt the State Europe School of Berlin (SESB) students with different language backgrounds learn together in two languages of instruction: German and one of nine partner languages (English, French, Greek, Italian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, and Turkish). AimsThis study investigates the reading proficiency trajectories in the minority or partner language among students in a two-way immersion (TWI) program. SampleParticipants were 977 TWI students. MethodsThe study included longitudinal large-scale assessments in Grades 4 to 6. Latent growth curve models were utilized for analysis. ResultsThe analyses revealed significant progress in partner language reading skills across all language combinations. However, notable differences in initial proficiency levels and developmental trajectories were observed between partner languages, even after controlling for background variables such as socioeconomic status and cognitive abilities. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that students' initial German reading proficiency positively influenced their reading proficiency in the partner language. ConclusionsOverall, the study demonstrates the effectiveness of the TWI program in promoting partner language proficiency development in TWI programs, particularly within the unique context of a diverse linguistic environment. This research provides valuable insights into how students develop reading skills in a multilingual environment.

Is It True That More Than Half of Web Contents Are in English? Not If Multilingualism Is Paid Due Attention!

The belief that English is and will remain largely dominant as the first language of the Internet in terms of content and is the natural lingua franca in cyberspace plays against the mobilization of human and funding resources to incorporate minority languages. We sustain that this belief stands on biased data and that multilingualism is more and more the nature of the Internet and translation its lingua franca. We challenge the validity of a source widely used, since 2011, to state that English represents a steady percentage of web contents over 50%. This business source, W3Techs, is well-famed and considered reliable for its surveys on web technologies, exploring a large sample of the Web. However, languages differ from other web technologies, in the fact than more than one language could be used on a website. Not taking into account the multilingual nature of the Web is a serious bias that leads to major errors. The study of the rate of multilingualism of the sample of websites used by W3Techs concludes that the percentage of English contents on the Web is within a 20%–30% range, a value coherent with the results from three referenced alternative methods. We plan for 2025 to create a tool for measurement of languages and rate of multilingualism in a series of websites, with thorough attention to list all the languages used within a website, a complex matter. This tool will be applied to the same sampling and should close definitively this matter.

SLOVAK AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN TERMS OF THE INTEGRATION PROCESSES IN THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC

The article represents a methodological starting point for research on teaching Slovak as a foreign language in the Slovak Republic. After the Slovak Republic joined the eurozone, it was necessary to start understanding Slovak as the state language – as a compulsory subject for Slovaks, but also to start teaching it to different groups of foreigners moving to Slovakia. This need has become even more pressing since February 2022, when the war conflict in Ukraine forced thousands of Ukrainians to leave their homes and seek refuge in neighbouring countries, including Slovakia. This raised the question of how to deal with Slovak as a foreign language within the educational system of the Slovak Republic. Legislation (a law on the Residence of Foreigners in Slovakia) is also currently being prepared that will require foreigners asking for living in Slovakia to take a standardized test/exam at an accredited educational institution. However, since very few research studies on this topic have been conducted, this scholarly article lays foundations and poses methodological questions within five key thematic areas (i.e., learners’ motivation, intermediary language, textbooks, testing reference levels and error analysis, particular case studies) when directing a follow-up series of research studies and to justify why these issues are relevant. Therefore, the article explains the starting points that are anchored in previous scientific works in the field. Furthermore, the elaborated theoretical foundations and proposed research studies that will be carried out by university teachers and educational researchers are aimed at deepening scientific knowledge not only in the context of Slovak as a foreign language, but also of other minor foreign languages (e.g. Polish, Czech, Croatian, etc.).

The right to education in the mother tongue for Ukrainian refugees in Romania according to international and national law

Since the outbreak of the Russian invasion in February 2022, millions of Ukrainian citizens have sought refuge in Romania, with a significant number of people still remaining in the country as of the latest reports. Romanian government data indicate that by April 2024, approximately 154,617 Ukrainian refugees, including 50,000 school-aged children, were residing in the country. Before this crisis, Romania had established robust educational language rights for its Ukrainian minority of around 40,000 citizens. This study rigorously examines these pre-existing language rights within Romania’s legal framework, focusing on public education provisions. Central to the inquiry is whether the comprehensive language rights afforded to Romania’s Ukrainian minority could be extended to the Ukrainian-speaking refugees. The study begins with an introduction contextualizing the refugee crisis and outlining the existing legal framework for minority language rights in Romania. The legal analysis covers constitutional and sub-constitutional provisions, alongside with an examination of international agreements such as the bilateral treaty between Romania and Ukraine, the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, and the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Special emphasis is placed on education provisions, including curriculum design, textbooks, language of instruction, and decision-making. By addressing these pivotal questions, this study contributes to the theoretical discourse around the personal scope of minority language rights in Europe and offers a nuanced insight into Romania’s legal framework on minority language education. It also seeks to elucidate how Romania’s legal commitments accommodate both established minority communities and newly arrived refugees with similar linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Further sociological research is needed to explore the implementation of Ukrainian-language education to the benefit of the Ukrainian refugees, which was beyond the scope of this study. Nevertheless, Romania possesses all the necessary legal elements to serve as a truly best practice model in Europe for organizing and ensuring good quality education in the mother tongue for Ukrainian refugees.

Retelling of Stories with Common Phrasal Expressions by High-Proficiency Learners: Implications for Learning and High-Stakes Testing

The goal of this research was to investigate how well L2 English speakers of different proficiency levels were able to perform on a test of auditory memory like that used in the Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS). In this test, participants must retell heard stories. While the validity of elicited imitation tests is well established in second-language acquisition research, the effectiveness of using retelling as a neuropsychological measurement when a language other than the test taker’s L1 is used is unclear. Further, due to their importance in memory function, this study also analyzed the role of common phrasal expressions in how well participants retold stories in three groups of different proficiency. The results indicated that the increase in scores in the retelling of stories aligned with the proficiency level of the non-native participants. Higher-proficiency NNSs were also able to use more of the commonly used spoken phrases in their retelling. Further, there was no difference in this measure between the higher-proficiency Second-Language English and First-Language English participants. While the effectiveness of this test method as a neuropsychological tool when a language other than the test taker’s L1 is used is unclear, these results indicate significant progress by the higher-proficiency participants. Nevertheless, given that this test is often used in this context with immigrants and minority language patients, doubts remain about its suitability for less proficient individuals.

Kimbu speakers’ attitudes toward language endangerment

This article is based on a study that assesses the attitudes towards language endangerment of Kimbu speakers, a minority language spoken in the Chunya and Sikonge Districts in Tanzania. The study used a descriptive approach to assess whether Kimbu speakers have developed negative attitudes towards their language, have ambivalent language loyalty and are indifferent about language transfer to children. Data for this study were collected through interviews with 50 Kimbu speakers. The study revealed that most of the Kimbu parents and younger generation are ambivalent and indifferent about their language, and they have developed negative attitudes towards it, claiming that it has no socio-economic and educational significance. Because of such a situation, they have ceased using it in most genuine and natural domains like home and other social functions in favour of other co-existing languages. The study concludes that the Kimbu language is relatively unsafe from endangerment. The recommendation is made that Kimbu speakers should be told of the importance of ethnic community languages and that they make a symbolic identity, therefore teaching their children the language and encouraging the use of it everywhere in the community will pave the way to positive attitudes, and ensure language vitality.

Linguistic Diversities in Nepal: A Glimpse of Past and Present

Nepal is known m as a multilingual nation; however, language policies and statistics of languages spoken in Nepal showed the challenges to maintain linguistic diversities in Nepal. In this context, aim of this study is to outline the language policies of Nepal. Constitutional provisions and arguments of the participants were analyzed with geographical and historical contexts. The study also presents the current population census and highlights the statistics of languages on the basis of mother tongue, second language and ancestor language. Government reports, law and rules related language policies, published between 1950 to 2013 were analyzed with the opinions and perceptions of the participants. Throughout history, the language politics in Nepal has undergone significant shifts and changes due to various political transformations. Current statistics of languages show that it is difficult to preserve minority languages because he numbers of speakers is very low. Except that lack of sufficient resource mobilization on the preservation of minority languages, confusing government policies, socio economic and cultural shift of the respected language community creates problems to sustain minorities language in Nepal. Finding of this study can be apply to formulate the policies and programs related to the preservation and promotion of endangered language because the study analyzes the present linguistic polices and statistics of the language spoken in Nepal.

Research on the Construction Path of the Mongolian-Chinese Translation Major in Colleges in Ethnic Regions under the New Liberal Arts Perspective

Under the new liberal arts context, the construction of college majors is showing a trend of interdisciplinary and integrative innovation. The Mongolian-Chinese translation major in ethnic regions, as a vital support for the inheritance of minority language and culture and social development, faces the challenge of adapting to the demands of the times and improving the quality of talent cultivation. This paper analyzes the current construction status of the Mongolian-Chinese translation major in ethnic region colleges and the challenges it faces within the new liberal arts framework. It proposes paths such as optimizing the curriculum system, building a strong faculty team, reforming practical teaching, and applying information technology. Additionally, the paper discusses innovative training models, the integration of cultural heritage and modern demands, and international development strategies, providing practical suggestions for the construction of the Mongolian-Chinese translation major in ethnic region colleges, aiming to promote innovation and sustainable development of the major in the new era.

The Amazigh language in Melilla (Spain): an approach to its uses and meanings

ABSTRACT The Amazigh language in the city of Melilla (Spain) is recognised as a regional and minority language, but it is not recognised as a co-official language, nor does it have the status of an official language. The unequal relationship between the official language, Spanish, and the Amazigh language has not only linguistic but also social implications, which have been little studied in this particular territory. Against this backdrop, we propose to investigate the situation of the Amazigh language in this context. For this purpose, an exploratory sociolinguistic study has been carried out, which approaches the uses, attitudes and opinions of the Melilla population – speakers and non-speakers – of the language in relation to the role it plays in the life of the city, its contribution to individual and collective cultural identity, as well as the role of political decisions on these dynamics. To this end, a mixed methodology was applied, including a questionnaire, as a pilot application, focus groups and semi-structured group and individual interviews. Among the conclusions, it is clear that there is a differential valuation of languages, which leads to inequalities. In response, the study recommends strong institutional support.

Intergenerational transmission and multilingual dynamics: exploring language policies in Chaoshan families through a contextual lens

ABSTRACT Amidst the rapid processes of industrialization and globalization, the interplay between minority and majority languages has garnered increasing attention, highlighting concerns surrounding linguistic diversity and the efficacious enactment of language policies. This study delves into the intricacies of language planning within the familial domain, specifically scrutinizing Chaoshan families in the Chaoshan region as pivotal arenas for nurturing the enduring vitality of Teochew. Employing a methodological approach integrating family visits, interaction recordings, and interviews, this study probes the dynamics of family language policies and individuals’ perceptions vis-à-vis the nexus between linguistic practices and identity formation, with particular emphasis on intergenerational transmission. The results highlight that although Teochew continues to be actively used in family conversations and is closely linked to local identity formation, it is gradually losing ground among younger generations. This decline in passing down the dialect from one generation to the next is noticeable and poses a challenge to its long-term continuity. These insights indicate potential challenges to the sustained perpetuation of Teochew, warranting concerted societal and individual endeavors to safeguard its status as a cherished linguistic asset. The study underscores the importance of societal and individual efforts in preserving Teochew as a valuable linguistic resource.

Языковое законодательство в межвоенной Польше как элемент национальной политики: историография проблемы

The paper deals with the language policy of Poland as an element of national policy. The international treaties on the protection of national minorities, the Constitution of Poland of 1921 and the laws adopted on July 31, 1924 “On the State language and working language in State institutions and self-government institutions”, “On language and organization of school work for national minorities”, “On language in courts, prosecutor’s office and notary institutions” are considered. In the Second Polish Republic, one third of the population consisted of national minorities, for whose rights the Polish Sejm adopted these laws. The laws provided for the limited use of the languages of national minorities – Lithuanian, Belarusian and Ukrainian. In certain cases, Polish civil servants were required to use the languages of national minorities in their activities. Due to their inconsistency and half-heartedness, the laws were not actually implemented and caused discontent both among representatives of national organizations and among the majority of Polish political circles. Among historians and in journalism, the laws “On Language...” also caused a discussion. Most researchers believe that the Polish language legislation did not aim to actually improve the situation of national minorities, but only to imitate their protection in order to form a positive image of a “democratic” Poland in the international arena.

Discourses of solidarity and resistance in alternative linguistics spaces: Galician improvised poetry as linguistic collective action

AbstractThis article focuses on alternative ways of understanding language in the context of minority language advocacy through an examination of the Galician tradition of singing‐in‐verse, known as regueifa. It proposes the notion of “linguistic collective action” to refer to the battery of resistance and solidarity strategies that lead to social transformation, implemented in grassroots movements linked to language struggles that not only go beyond the binary tropes of “pride” and “profit”, but also transcend traditional ideas of how language revitalization should be carried out. To tap into the dynamics of this social movement, we draw on a multi‐sited ethnography of the interconnected spaces in which urban‐based Galician speakers engage in collective action through the practice of regueifa. We examine how progressive values (e.g.: LGBTQ+ advocacy, feminism, and anti‐neoliberalism) are intertwined with the use of minoritized language reclamation, acting as a trigger for social transformation.

Language, Cultural Identity, and Spirituality —A Case Study of the Representation of Minority Ethnic Subjects in Chinese Ethnographic Documentary

AbstractSince the 1990s, there has been a surge in ethnographic films by Han directors in China, highlighting the complex interplay of power dynamics between these filmmakers and the minority communities they portray. This study examines these dynamics through the lens of spirituality and cultural representation, focusing on the film “Ashiq: The Last Troubadour.” A case study and interviews with the director, Liu Xiangchen, reveal an essentialist portrayal of the Uygur Ashiq that emphasises their spiritual and cultural identity on Uighur language chant, inadvertently reinforcing Han dominance. The analysis suggests that while the director's intentions reflect a critical self‐awareness, the film perpetuates the marginalisation of the Ashiq. We argue that ethnographic cinema should offer a more nuanced depiction of ethnic minorities and their minority language to challenge social injustices further and promote inclusivity in China's diverse linguistic and cultural landscape.

Assessing changes in COVID-19 vaccine uptake and intentions among the Brigada Digital Latino social media audience: a repeated cross-sectional study

BackgroundU.S. Latinos experienced disproportionate COVID-19 impacts in terms of morbidity and mortality. Vaccination against COVID-19 is an important strategy for mitigating health impacts, and yet, vaccine uptake was slower among U.S. Latino adults compared to other racial/ethnic groups. Vaccine hesitancy has been a significant barrier within Latino communities, and exposure to misinformation has been associated with negative attitudes toward vaccination. While some COVID-19 mitigation efforts have included community-based outreach, few studies have explored the impact of community-based digital messaging in Spanish to counter COVID-19 misinformation, build trust, and promote vaccination. To address this gap, we conducted a one-year repeated cross-sectional study to assess changes in COVID-19 vaccine uptake, intentions, and perceived norms, as well as barriers to accessing reliable information and levels of trust in COVID-19 information sources among Latino adults exposed to Brigada Digital de Salud social media content. This culturally-tailored content disseminated on Facebook, Instagram, and X platforms was amplified by community health workers and partners, and focused on COVID-19 risk and prevention, vaccine safety and efficacy, and correcting related misinformation.ResultsStatistically significant increases in COVID-19 vaccination and intentions to vaccinate children were observed from May 2022 (wave 1) to April 2023 (wave 2). Among perceived difficulties accessing information, respondents indicated the most difficulty in judging the reliability of COVID-19 information in the media; however, a statistically significant decrease in perceived difficulty was observed between waves. With regard to trust in COVID-19 information sources, levels of trust were highest for healthcare providers in both waves, and there were statistically significant increases in trust in the FDA to ensure COVID-19 vaccine safety and trust in the federal government to ensure child COVID-19 vaccine safety at wave 2.ConclusionsSocial media messaging by trusted community-based sources shows promise as a strategy for combating health misinformation and ameliorating information access gaps for language minority populations. This digital approach represents an important tool for deploying critical information to underserved populations in public health emergency and crisis contexts, and for supporting changes in attitudes, trust, and behaviors to improve health outcomes.

Testing the Early Differentiation Hypothesis: A Case Study of a Spanish-English Bilingual Child

This paper contributes to the field of simultaneous bilingual first language acquisition (2L1). Specifically, it examines the developmental stages of a bilingual child in two languages, Spanish and English. The analysis is performed by analyzing bilingual acquisition data from CHILDES database with the CLAN program. The study aims to support several hypotheses proposed in the field of 2L1 (e. g., The Early Differentiation Hypothesis). The results show that the developmental stages of a bilingual child correspond to the stages of a monolingual child acquiring a language; the only difference is the number of languages that is being acquired. The data also show that the child’s caregivers use certain strategies in their socialization as the important prerequisite for 2L1 (e.g., frequency of input, discourse strategies and maximal engagement with a minority language available in the input). The results of the study confirm the Early Differentiation Hypothesis that argues for the language-specific morphosyntactic patterns in child’s grammar. The study has very important pedagogical implications for parents who raise their children in bi- and multilingual families.