Minor Canals Research Articles

Evaluating the need and feasibility of micro-irrigation systems for sustainable irrigation.

Irrigation is crucial for sustainable agriculture and improving farm yields, but a significant gap exists between the irrigation potential created and its actual utilization. This gap is due to losses in canal conveyance and the inefficiency of conventional irrigation methods within canal command areas. Most modernization efforts in India focus on implementing micro-irrigation for tube well systems, addressing the problem of water table decline experienced in many districts. With this context, the present study examines the command area of Gadarjudda minor of the Upper Ganga Canal in Haridwar district, Uttarakhand, India, to assess the present state of the canal by conducting on-site surveys and feasibility of micro-irrigation by evaluating the viability of replacing minor canals with a gravity flow piped irrigation network. The evaluation involves assessing the current canal status, designing the gravity flow piped irrigation network, and conducting a social survey to determine farmers' willingness, awareness, and purchasing capacity toward adoptin of micro-irrigation systems on their farms. The study identifies high conveyance loss and poor maintenance in conventional irrigation methods, highlighting the importance of micro-irrigation in the study area. The profile of the minor canal is adequate to support gravity flow in the pipe network, with velocity and pressure head within permissible limits. A social survey revealed that 85% of farmers are willing to adopt micro-irrigation, but low purchasing capacity (36%) hampers its adoption. The study concludes that micro-irrigation is viable in the Gadarjudda minor canal command area as long as a piped irrigation network is implemented and farmers receive government subsidies and proper training.

Application of Bentonite on Dune Sand to Decrease its Permeability

Various Experiments were conducted to find the effectiveness of bentonites in reducing the losses, majorly seepage from the minor canals and the streams in the Rajasthan sand dunes region. When 1 to 5 percent bentonite was mixed in the dune sand available in western Rajasthan it resulted in the loss of 5 to 50 in permeability when it was compacted properly at the present optimum moisture content.

Evaluation of water resources: A case study of Rohtak district, Haryana

Water is one of the most important natural resources for life. Because of the rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization, the demand for water to meet various needs is constantly increasing. Water that is present below the Earth's surface and fills any gaps in the soil or geologic strata is known as groundwater. It is additionally known as subsurface water. Data related to underground water table were obtained from Central Ground Water Board of the Ministry of Water Resources. Maps of underground water table depth, quality and surface water resources were prepared in Arc GIS software. After the analysis of maps, the depth of the underground water table in the study area ranges from 0 to 20 meters. The maximum area of the study area is 3-10 meters, which covers 48.35% of the study area. The minimum area is 10-20 meters deep and covers 1.43% of the study area. In Rohtak block, the maximum depth is observed in the villages of Brahmanvas, Chamaria, Aryanagar, and Bohar. The quality of groundwater varies from fresh to saline. Fresh underground water quality occupies the largest area, accounting for 59.8% of the study area. Saline underground water quality accounts for 0.5% of the study area. In terms of surface water resources, this district lacks a perennial river. The main irrigation channels in this area are artificial drain no. 8 and sub drains, major canals, distributaries, and minor canals. This research paper will make a better understanding of water resources in Rohtak district. It will help to analyse and understand the current status of underground water depth, quality and surface water to build up any water resource management plan. A water resource management plan will ensure the sustainable use of water resources which is very important for our ecosystem.

Exploring the Inefficient Groundwater Use by Wheat Farmers: An Evidence from Sindh, Pakistan

Pakistan's agricultural production is lower than that of many other developing countries. The agricultural community is nearly illiterate and uses old and conservative farming methods. These constraints impede the adoption and spread of new technologies at the agricultural level. The objective of this study was to calculate economic, allocative, technical, and water-use efficiency. In addition, the drivers of inefficiency for wheat fields in Benazirabad and Naushahro Feroz districts were measured. For the analysis, 390 farmers' data were used, 195 from each of the Chihu and Malwa minor canals. Data-envelopment-analysis, a non-parametric method, was utilized to determine the ratings of efficiency. The findings revealed that the mean economic, allocative, and technical efficiency scores of farms in the study region were 52%, 62%, and 83%. The average water-use efficiency score was found to be 52%. For the improvement in the present farming system, quantified results suggested the need for potential increase in wheat production by 17% with keeping the same level of inputs. Results further revealed that the production cost can be reduced by 48% by producing the same level of output leading to optimal allocation of resources. There is also a potential gap of improvement for water-use efficiency. Improvement in agriculture extension services, timely and proper supply of inputs and the creation of local level marketplaces at lower administrative entities can improve the efficiency scores of wheat farmers.

Composition and Distribution of Aquatic Weeds in some Minor Canals, Gezira Scheme, Sudan (2018)

Excessive growth of aquatic weeds in irrigation systems is a worldwide problem. In Sudan, many irrigation schemes have been greatly affected by aquatic weeds such as Gezira scheme. The objective of the study was to evaluate the community composition and distribution of aquatic weeds in some minor canals in the Gezira scheme in 2018. The study area covered six minor canals at Centre Group at Gezira Scheme. Each minor canal was divided into three sections; head, middle and tail (18 sampling sites). The sites were surveyed once in every month for a period of three months during summer and winter seasons. The community composition of aquatic weeds was detected by visual observation, whereas the distribution of aquatic weeds was determined by calculation of percentage of relative frequency. Data were subjected to descriptive analysis and to analysis of variance. The results indicated that the community composition in the six minor canals consists of four groups of aquatic weeds as follows; floating, emergent, submergent and bank aquatic weeds and consisted of 12 species belonging to nine families. Results showed considerable differences in distribution throughout the year. The most dominant species within the groups were; Vossia cuspidata (33% - 41%) within the group of floating weeds, Cyperus alopecuroides (87% - 55%) within the group of emergent weeds and Cynodon dactylon (75% - 83%) within the group of bank aquatic weeds during both summer and winter seasons. Submergent weeds present only in winter season in one species Najas pectinata. Also, results of relative frequency within all aquatic species showed that Vossia cuspidata and Cynodon dactylon were the most dominant species. These finding gives many insights about the problems of aquatic weeds in minor canals and would be useful in the management and control of aquatic weeds.

Optimization of Canal Water in an Irrigation Network Based on a Genetic Algorithm: A Case Study of the North China Plain Canal System

AbstractMaximizing the efficiency of water distribution in canals requires clear guidelines and criteria for system design and operation. Studies have shown that optimization models based on a genetic algorithm (GA) provide a reasonable arrangement of canal water allocation times and discharges, which reduces water transportation losses. In this study, a GA was developed and implemented in the North China Plain canal system, which has 24 minor canals and a command area of approximately 1800 ha. The optimization results indicated that the total seepage loss and evapotranspiration in the canal system decreased from 249 000 to 115 000 m3. Furthermore, the total water requirement decreased from 1 170 000 to 1 040 000 m3. This study suggests that revising water delivery schedules could increase water productivity, and reduce water leakage and total water requirements. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Metoptic Canal and Warwick's Foramen: Incidence and Morphometric Analysis by Several Reference Points in the Human Orbit.

Several canals and foramens in the human orbit are well known in the literature. However, little is known about some minor canals or structures including metoptic canal and Warwick's foramen. The aim of the present study was to make morphometric measurements and to determine the incidence of the metoptic canal and Warwick's foramen in the Turkish population. Ninety-two dried human skulls were examined. All skulls were obtained from the Turkish population and collection of the Anatomy Department of the Akdeniz University. The metoptic canal and Warwick's foramen were identified in the skulls. Incidence of these structures and diameters were determined. Morphometric measurements were made using various reference points in the orbit. Of the 92 dry human skulls, the metoptic canal was detected in 20 of them. This canal was detected unilaterally. The metoptic canal was observed in 11 (11.9%) dry skulls in the right side, whereas it was observed in 9 (9.7%) dry skulls in the left side. There were no statistically significant differences according to the side for any of the measurements recorded (p>0.05). The Warwick's foramen was observed in 12 (13.0%) skulls of all dry skulls. This foramen was also present unilaterally and was right sided in 7 (7.6%) skulls and left sided in 5 (5.4%) skulls. Determination of additional foramen in the orbit is contributed to the literature. The presence of the metoptic canal and Warwick's foramen and their relationship with other structures in the orbit may have clinical significance in surgical operations.

History of an irrigation canal: the 'Real Canal de la Infanta', Barcelona, Spain

A great agricultural development took place in the Llobregat river delta, near Barcelona, during the 19th century in order to fulfil the demand of the growing town and even to export vegetables and fruits to the north of Europe. This demand favoured the transformation of dry land agriculture into irrigated one through the construction of infrastructures for water distribution. In the lower part of the Llobregat river, a canal for supplying water to agricultural fields was built supported by the authorities and landowners. The Infanta Luisa Carlota de Borbón Canal (Infanta Canal) was 17 km long with several complementary minor canals and distribution facilities to irrigate around 3,000 hectares which allowed at least three crops per year. Apart from irrigation and industrial uses, this system was used to generate electricity. Over the years, agriculture disappeared from the area due to industrialisation and urban growth and the canal was partially transformed into a sewer. Its trace has been lost near the Mediterranean Sea, although there are still some remnants. Nowadays, several teams are trying to describe and recover this historical facility.

Metoptic canal, duplication of the optic canal and Warwick’s foramen in human orbits

The region of the optic strut is sometimes traversed by some minor canals whose incidence and general characteristics have never been studied. As such canals could be the route for vessels that could interfere in the surgery of the orbital apex, we undertook a detailed anatomical study on a vast collection of dry skulls. The examination of 943 dry adult skulls and 360 foetal skulls was carried out to precise the anatomy of canals in the optic strut area, their development and relationships with the optic canal. A canal traversing the optic strut was present in 8.54 % of the orbits. Based on diameter, position within the optic strut, and thickness of the bony plate separating it from the optic canal or from the superior orbital fissure, the canals piercing the optic strut were classified into four types, which include the well-known duplication of the optic canal, different aspects of the metoptic canal and a type of canal that to our knowledge has never been reported. Warwick’s foramen was found in 0.74 % of orbits. The area of the optic strut is the frequent site of canals joining the orbit with the middle cranial fossa. Some of them can host the ophthalmic artery; others could be run by minor vessels which, however, could be the source of annoying bleedings in surgical procedures.

Metoptic canal and duplication of the optic canal in human orbits

The region of the optic strut can be traversed by some minor canals whose incidence and general characteristics have never been studied. As such canals could be the route for vessels that could interfere in the surgery of the orbital apex we undertook a detailed anatomical study on a vast collection of dry skulls. The examination of 943 dry adult skulls was carried out to precise the anatomy of canals in the optic strut area, their development and relationships with the optic canal. A canal traversing the optic strut was present in 8.54% of the orbits. Based on diameter, position within the optic strut and thickness of the bony plate separating it from the optic canal, the canals piercing the optic strut were classified in four types. Type I includes all cases of duplication of the optic canal (optic canal + ophthalmic canal) and it was observed in 0.64% of cases. Type I canal encompass cases of very large ophthalmic canals (diameter larger than 2 mm), far too large for the purpose of just transmitting the ophthalmic artery (type Ia), and cases of ophthalmic canals showing a calibre higher than 1 and lower than 2 mm and compatible, therefore, to host the ophthalmic artery (type Ib). Type II is a small channel that pierces the floor of the optic canal and runs backwards remaining separated from posterior part of the optic canal by a very thin (< 0.5 mm) bony plate that, for its thinness, could be the result of late events of calcification. The calibre of this kind of canal ranges from 120 μm to 1 mm and it was observed in 1.96% of cases. Type III is a small canal that traverses the whole thickness of the optic strut and a bony pillar or a thick bony lamina separate it from the optic canal. As the previous one, it can be very narrow or it can reach a respectable calibre though never larger than 1 mm, otherwise it would have been considered as type I canal. It was observed in 3.66% of cases. Type IV is a canal piercing the base of the optic strut. In 0.42% of orbits it traverses the entire thickness of the optic strut (type IVa) or in 2.07% of orbits it appears as a canal apposed to the lateral side of the optic strut (type IVb); as such, its very thin lateral wall is the only separation from the superior orbital fissure. In conclusion, the area of the optic strut is the frequent site of canals joining the orbit with the middle cranial fossa. Some of them can host the ophthalmic artery, others can be run by minor vessels which, however, can be the source of annoying bleedings in surgical procedures.

Water allocation and optimization of minor canal operation

In this study a mathematical simulation of canal operation is presented for optimizing water allocation within a multiple crop rotation canal. Zero-one linear programming algorithm was made for optimal flow regulation and to optimize irrigation water allocation and sequencing of different outlets in the irrigation canal under the constraints of fixed canal capacity and irrigation interval. The model was coded in a personal computer using Excel – visual basic application language (VBA) and designed to serve as a decision-making tool for operating an existing canal or for appropriate sizing of canal capacity (flow rate and cross-sectional area) of a new one. The model is verified statistically in comparison with published models. The allocation model is applied to the real cases of wet and dry regions of Gezira Scheme – Sudan for sequencing canal outlets for the cases of early and peak season at Sunni Minor canal and Ugud Minor canal. The model sensitivity to changes in outlet inflow rate (working time per outlet) was made for the said two cases. This indicated the model capabilities to effectively provide a constant flow rate into the canal during the operating period, and consequently minimize the need to frequently adjust the settings of canal head regulator. The model capabilities to optimize water scheduling and allocation process can be used to save irrigation water during early stages of crop growth and to upgrade the operation of minor canals in the irrigated schemes in the Sudan.

Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Evapotranspiration Using Satellite Remote Sensing Data: A Case Study in the Gezira Scheme, Sudan

Current methods for estimating evapotranspiration (ET), the essential variable in irrigation performance and water management, largely neglect the spatial and temporal variations in ET. Accurate regional ET maps would provide valuable information on actual crop water use. The objective of this study was mainly to evaluate a Pilot Project (PP) supported by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). In this study, Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) model was used to assist the evaluation attempt. The performance of the ET model was evaluated by comparing the predicted daily ET with values derived by conventional methods based on ground measurements and meteorological data on 6 Sepetmber, 25 Sepetmber, 28 November and 11 December. The ET values from SEBAL showed good agreement with the actual values measured in the field. The amount of water required to satisfy the irrigation needs at canal level was monitored and successfully estimated. However, during November the daily estimated water demand ranged from 15667 m3 for Tereifi minor to 28954 m3 for Heleiwa west minor canal. The average values of relative irrigation supply (RIS) were determined as 0.73 which indicates improvements in operational performance of minor canals. The results of this study demonstrate that remote sensing measurements and limited ground data can be used to successfully estimate ET and assess irrigation performance in areas of poor infrastructure. Results achieved support previous opinion that repeatedly recommended the PP as a crucial step for water management in the Gezira scheme, Sudan.

Incidence, morphology and clinical relevance of bony canals and vascular grooves in the paracondylar region of adult human skulls

Most features of the skull are well described in standard anatomy textbooks. There may, however, be variations in the form of minor grooves, canals and foramina that merit documentation. In the present study, morphological diversity in the form of osseous tunnels was seen adjacent to the occipital condyles. These canals were present in the paracondylar region (lateral to the occipital condyle) and are therefore termed paracondylar canals. A total of 304 dry adult human skulls (608 sides) of Indian origin were examined and paracondylar canals were found in 59 of these. Thirty-six (11.8%) were bilateral and 23 (7.6%) unilateral. Vascular grooves were found leading to the canals in 52 sides (15.8%). This may result from normal developmental processes and could be a peculiarity confined to the Indian population, as it has not been reported previously. This variant may serve as a valuable anthropological marker. The results of surgical procedures in this area, such as the paracondylar approach (which is directed through the area lateral to the occipital condyles) and the far lateral supracondylar approach, could be impacted upon by this variation.

Participatory management: Would it be a turning point in the history of the Gezira scheme?

AbstractSince its establishment in 1925 decisions in the Sudan's Gezira irrigated scheme have been top‐down from the central headquarters of the Sudan Gezira Board (SGB). The irrigation system is divided into the upper system (US) that includes the dam, main, branch and major canals and the lower system that comprises the minor, tertiary and field channels. The Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources (MOIWR) is responsible for the O&amp;M of the US in addition to the maintenance of the Minor canals. The operation of the minor canals is handled by the SGB. The maintenance of the minor canals was given to the SGB in 1999, thus unifying O&amp;M for the first time in 75 years. This opened the door for the O&amp;M to be handed to tenants in a pilot project (PP) supported by the FAO during 2000–2002. Crop yields in the PP outyielded the neighboring blocks as well as the scheme average during the two years of the project. The PP is to be extended to at least one block in each of the 18 Gezira administrative groups. The PP established the base of legalization and institutional arrangements that govern the water users' activities and resulted in a great change in tenants' attitudes towards water management. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Maintenance Management Process

A case study from Maharashtra comparing maintenance performance between two transferred minor canals on the one hand and two non-transferred minor canals on the other is presented. It is shown that the clear differences in maintenance performance are due not to differences in resources expended, but to differences in maintenance management processes. This study demonstrates that small differences in management process can lead to major differences in maintenance performance under severe resource constraints.

Distribution of Freshwater Snails in Irrigation Schemes in the Sudan

(1) This study had two aims. Firstly, to investigate the distribution of aquatic macrophytes and molluscan intermediate hosts of schistosomes in the following irrigation systems in the Sudan: the Gezira-Managil Agricultural Scheme (GMAS), the Rahad Agricultural Scheme (RAS) and the New Halfa Agricultural Scheme (NHAS). Secondly, to formulate hypotheses to account for the distribution observed and to evaluate the possibility that snail hosts of schistosomiasis may be excluded by other competitor snail species. (2) The most snail species were recorded from GMAS, where Biomphalaria pfeifferi (Krauss) and Bulinus truncatus (Audouin) were very abundant and equally frequent. In RAS, B. pfeifferi was less common than B. truncatus; the opposite was found in NHAS. (3) Density of the intermediate hosts and of submerged plants was high, particularly in the terminal section of minor canals. Chemical and physical characteristics of the water showed remarkable variation among sites, which was related to the composition and density of the aquatic vegetation. In GMAS, positive and negative associations between snail and plant species were found. (4) Contingency tests revealed no significant negative correlations between pairs of snail species. On the contrary, a number of positive correlations was found. In GMAS, B. pfeifferi was positively correlated with B. truncatus, Lymnaea natalensis Krauss, Cleopatra bulimoides (Olivier) and Lanistes carinatus (Olivier). In RAS, Melanoides tuberculata (Muller) was positively correlated with B. pfeifferi.

A survey of the Fish Fauna of Sudanese Irrigation Systems with Reference to the Use of Fishes in the Management of Ecological Problems (the Control of Aquatic Weeds, Malaria and Infective Schistosomiasis)

This paper reports on a fundamental study of the fish fauna already present within the irrigation canals. The fauna was investigated with a view to determining its use in the control of nuisance biota. Twenty-seven species of fish were collected, comprising 22 genera and 12 families. This fauna is closely allied to the fauna of the source water, the Blue Nile. Several Blue Nile species are absent and some of those collected are new recordings for the area. Each species of fish collected had neither a suitable feeding habit nor a wide enough distribution to have any significant effect on the levels of nuisance biota. This includes the mosquito fish. Gambusia affinis, which was specifically introduced for mosquito control. Improvement in the ecological conditions within the canals involves both the management of the already-existing fish stocks and the introduction and management of additional species. A reduction in the levels of aquatic weeds using phytophagous fishes should be a high priority with malacopliagous and larvivorous species also being introduced and their stocks managed. Species suitable for introduction, which are generally endemic to the Nile system, are suggested. The fish species diversity falls as the canals become smaller and the water within them subject to much greater variations in flow and quality. The lowest order canals (field canals) are probably unsuitable for permanent fish stocks. The nuisance biota within field canals can be controlled by simple improvements in crop-watering procedures. The widely distributed and diverse fauna found within minor canals suggests that problems due to fish-kills brought about by heavy pesticide and herbicide usage are not so severe as previously thought. The management of the ecological problems is a complex task due to the interrelationships of many factors.

Aerial application of N-trityl morpholine to irrigation canals in Sudan.

Using a crop-spraying aircraft modified to give a coarse spray, the feasibility of aerial application of the molluscicide N-trityl morpholine to minor canals on the Gezira has been proved. In January 1973, seven canals were sprayed at dosages of 0-1 p.p.m., 0-2 p.p.m., 0-5 p.p.m. and 1-0 p.p.m. Chemical analysis indicated that about 70% of the chemical was present in the water 5-15 hours after the spray, and snail exposure to the sprayed canals indicated that all dosages applied were lethal to Biomphalaria snails. Bulinus snails, which are less susceptible to the molluscicide, were killed only by the 0-5 p.p.m. and 1-0 p.p.m. dosages. Sampling of the natural snail populations of the canals confirmed these results. In March 1973, an area of 464 sq km was treated by drip-feed of 0-1 p.p.m. N-trityl morpholine to kill snails in the main and major canals, and then by aerial spraying 56 of the 58 minor canals in the area. Despite the high winds which disrupted the spray timetable, the canals were successfully treated in 9-5 hours flying-time within seven days. A very high initial snail kill was indicated by both caged snail exposure and natural snail population sampling. However, in excellent snail breeding conditions the area was reinfested with snails within two months. The cost of the application was only 5% of the chemical cost, and aerial spraying in March and May will almost certainly be incorporated in an annual snail control programme.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF OVERGROWTHS FROM ECHINODERM FRAGMENTS

SUMMARYAn overgrowth from an echinoderm fragment is a single crystal of calcite in lattice continuity with the calcite crystal of the host. The development history of echinoderm overgrowths during cementation has been elucidated by the identification of iron‐bearing and iron‐free calcites within the overgrowths by employing staining techniques.The iron‐bearing parts of the overgrowths described do not stain uniformly for iron. Instead they exhibit a succession of light and dark stained sub‐zones, which represent the shapes of the overgrowths during their development.The pattern of zoning around basal sections of crinoid ossicles is comparatively simple. The innermost zones follow the outlines of the ossicles. Later zones adopt first quasi‐hexagonal outlines with curved sides, and then true hexagonal zones of prismatic habit. Such basal sections of ossicles give well‐centred conoscope images and are therefore, oriented perpendicular to the c‐axis directions of their calcites.Vertical sections through overgrowths show a more complex zoning: above and below the articulating surfaces of ossicles the zones are wide, and have a marked zig‐zag outline, with the axes of the spires parallel to the vertical axes of the ossicles and parallel to the c‐axes of the crystals. Along the sides of the ossicles the zones are narrow and straight. The multiple terminations in the c‐axis direction reduce in number away from the surface of the ossicle and, if the original pore‐spaces are sufficiently large, ultimately yield a single scalenohedron‐type termination. The multiple terminations have their origins on the articulating surfaces of the ossicles. In life these surfaces were perforated by the entrances to the numerous minor canals which ramify the ossicles. The multiplicity of terminations resulted from more rapid crystal growth from the surface of the ossicle between canals (c‐axis direction) than from the surfaces of the canals themselves (direction perpendicular to the c‐axis).

III. On the structure and function of the rods of the cochlea in man and other mammals

The ear is, it is well known, one of the most complicated organs of the body, consisting of the external, middle, and internal sections, the two former being concerned in collecting and conducting sounds or vibrations, while the duty of the internal portion consists in receiving, localizing, and clearly distinguishing them. It is simply with this last function of the organ that I purpose to deal, my aim being to describe the true construction and use of the cochlea, so far as its task of distinguishing the various sounds is concerned. This cochlea, it must be borne in mind, consists of a spiral canal, in form and shape very similar to the inside of a snail-shell. From the axis of this spiral, there proceeds horizontally a plate of bone, the lamina spiralis, almost dividing this canal into two; from this plate, again, there extend two membranes, the membrane of Reissner and the lamina spiralis membranacea, as far as the walls of the canal, thus separating it into three minor canals. Between the layers of the membranous spiral lamina are situated the so-called Rods of Corti. These were first discovered and described by the Marquis de Corti; and although since then many observers have studied the subject, yet scarcely two investigators are agreed as to their exact form.