Minoan Eruption Of Santorini Research Articles

Formation of undulating seafloor bedforms during the Minoan eruption and their implications for eruption dynamics and slope stability at Santorini

The Minoan eruption of Santorini is one of the largest Holocene volcanic events and produced several cubic kilometers of pyroclastic flows emplaced on the submerged flanks of the volcano. Marine geophysical surveys reveal a multitude of undulating seafloor bedforms (USBs) around Santorini. While similar structures are known from other volcanoes worldwide, Santorini offers the unique opportunity to relate USB formation with volcanic processes during one of the best-studied volcanic eruptions worldwide. In this study, we combine high-resolution seismic reflection data with multibeam echosounder bathymetry to reveal the internal architecture of USBs around Santorini and to relate their morphological characteristics to formational processes. The USBs around Santorini were formed during the Minoan eruption and represent the seafloor expression of mass transport deposits. Three types of deposits differ in composition or origin. (1) Depositional USBs, which can only be found to the north of the island, where Minoan eruption ignimbrites reach their maximum thickness and the undulating topography is the result of thrusting within the deposit. (2) USBs related to slope failures of volcaniclastics from the entire Thera Pyroclastic Formation, which can be found east, south, and west of the island. (3) USBs associated with deep-seated deformation, which occurs on the southwestern flank along an area affected by rift tectonics and extends to a depth of more than 200 m below the seafloor. In cases (2) and (3), the USBs are formed upslope by block rotation and downslope by thrusting. Our study indicates that these processes may have contributed to the generation of the devastating Minoan tsunami. Since Santorini is located in one of the most tectonically active regions in the Mediterranean, capable of producing earthquakes with magnitude M7+, our study has important implications for hazard assessment. A strong earthquake located close to the island may have the potential to reactivate slope instabilities posing a previously undetected but potentially significant tsunami hazard.

Tsunamis in the Greek Region: An Overview of Geological and Geomorphological Evidence

The Greek region is known as one of the most seismically and tectonically active areas and it has been struck by some devastating tsunamis, with the most prominent one being the 365 AD event. During the past decade significant research efforts have been made in search of geological and geomorphological evidence of palaeotsunamis along the Greek coasts, primarily through the examination of sediment corings (72% of studies) and secondarily through boulders (i.e., 18%). The published data show that some deposits have been correlated with well-known events such as 365 AD, 1303 AD, the Minoan Santorini Eruption and the 1956 Amorgos earthquake and tsunami, while coastal studies from western Greece have also reported up to five tsunami events, dating as far back as the 6th millennium BC. Although the Ionian Islands, Peloponnese and Crete has been significantly studied, in the Aegean region research efforts are still scarce. Recent events such as the 1956 earthquake and tsunami and the 2020 Samos earthquake and tsunami highlight the need for further studies in this region, to better assess the impact of past events and for improving our knowledge of tsunami history. As Greece is amongst the most seismically active regions globally and has suffered from devastating tsunamis in the past, the identification of tsunami prone areas is essential not only for the scientific community but also for public authorities to design appropriate mitigation measures and prevent tsunami losses in the future.

Tephra in caves: Distal deposits of the Minoan Santorini eruption and the Campanian super-eruption

Tephra deposits in caves are not only significant as stratigraphic markers. The comparatively sheltered position of cave environments, protected from rainfall, may preserve original distal tephra deposition features, unlikely to have survived in the open landscape. Most reported findings of tephra in caves are from the Campanian super-eruption, which originated in the area of Naples (Italy). These findings facilitate evaluation in different caves of facies variability and modes of tephra deposition, derived from the same eruption. The Campanian volcanic event, about 40,000 years ago, was the largest eruption in Europe and the Mediterranean region during the late Pleistocene. Another major volcanic event during the Quaternary was the more recent Santorini eruption in the eastern Mediterranean (Aegean Sea) during the Late Minoan cultural period, approximately 3600 years ago. This was the largest Holocene eruption in the region, but tephra deposits in caves from this event appear to be very rare. We present here the first ever finding of a visible tephra layer from the Minoan Santorini eruption in a cave. The pure tephra, situated in the Pelekita cave in eastern Crete near Kato Zakros, has a thickness of up to 9 cm. Geochemistry analyses of major elements by electron probe micro-analysis (EPMA) and trace elements by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) prove the tephra to be derived from the Minoan Santorini eruption. Radiocarbon dating also fits the time frame of this eruption. Our findings indicate that the tephra layer in the Pelekita cave is an air-fall deposit. The lower boundary of the tephra layer is sharp and wavy, draping over the underlying irregular cave surface. Particle size distribution of the tephra is bimodal and typical for suspended aeolian transport. The consistently smaller size of heavier feldspar particles adjacent to larger but lighter volcanic glass particles, in thin sections of undisturbed samples, corroborate emplacement of the tephra inside the Pelekita cave from high-altitude fallout.

The Minoan Santorini Eruption and its14C Position in Archaeological Strata: Preliminary Comparison Between Ashkelon and Tell El-Dabca

ABSTRACTThe volcanic mega event of the Minoan Santorini eruption constitutes a time anchor in the 2nd millennium BCE that is inherently independent of archaeology and political history. It was a geological event. Yet the dimension of time in geology is not different than in archaeology or human history. Why then does archaeological dating usually place the Minoan Santorini eruption in the 18th Dynasty around 1500 BCE, whilst radiocarbon dating of the volcanic event at Akrotiri (Thera) yielded a calibrated age of 1646–1603 cal BCE, a difference of more than a century? The crux of the problem lies apparently in the correlation between archaeological strata and political history. We present radiocarbon dates of Ashkelon Phases 10 and 11 in comparison to Tell el-Dabca and the Santorini eruption, based only on14C dating. Tell el-Dabca Phase D/2 is slightly older than the volcanic event. But Phase D/1 or Phase C/2-3 could have witnessed the eruption. Ashkelon Phase 11 has similar radiocarbon dates as Tell el-Dabca Phases E/2, E/1 and D/3, all being significantly older than the Minoan eruption. It seems that the duration of Ashkelon Phase 10 includes the temporal occurrence of the Minoan Santorini eruption within the Second Intermediate Period.

Contouring the Cataclysm: A Geographical Analysis of the Effects of the Minoan Eruption of the Santorini Volcano

ABSTRACTThis study is a step forward in understanding the palaeoenvironmental effects of the Minoan eruption of Santorini (1627–1600 BCE). We employ geostatistics to produce a prediction map for the thickness of the tephra fallout over the Eastern Mediterranean, and we reconstruct the effects by comparisons with recent eruption analogues. Based on the geostatistical map, the amount of environmental disruption over so far undocumented areas is estimated by comparison with archaeological sites where emplaced Minoan tephra has been recorded before. Nevertheless, independent field evidence suggest that the environment responded differently in places, occasionally posing challenges to the presented interpolation. A second line of evidence coming from contemporaneous fluvial archives provides clues for a widespread ‘Minoan flood’ over a large part of the Eastern Mediterranean, associated with the eruption itself. This simultaneous hydrological event may have had a counterbalancing effect on the impacts of the Minoan tephra cover, and could explain the sporadic discrepancies between the predicted effects and the palaeoenvironmental evidence. Traces of the effects of this extraordinary volcanic event are also sought in the regional Late Bronze Age literature.

Palaeomagnetic analysis on pottery as indicator of the pyroclastic flow deposits temperature: new data and statistical interpretation from the Minoan eruption of Santorini, Greece

Palaeomagnetic analysis on pottery as indicator of the pyroclastic flow deposits temperature: new data and statistical interpretation from the Minoan eruption of Santorini, Greece

A Numerical Modelling Study on the Potential Role of Tsunamis in the Biblical Exodus

The reliability of the narrative of the Biblical Exodus has been subject of heated debate for decades. Recent archaeological studies seem to provide new insight of the exodus path, and although with a still controversial chronology, the effects of the Minoan Santorini eruption have been proposed as a likely explanation of the biblical plagues. Particularly, it has been suggested that flooding by the associated tsunamis could explain the first plague and the sea parting. Recent modelling studies have shown that Santorini’s tsunami effects were negligible in the eastern Nile Delta, but the released tectonic stress could have triggered local tsunamigenic sources in sequence. This paper is aimed to a quantitative assessment of the potential role of tsunamis in the biblical parting of the sea. Several “best case” scenarios are tested through the application of a numerical model for tsunami propagation that has been previously validated. The former paleogeographic conditions of the eastern Nile Delta have been implemented based upon recent geological studies; and several feasible local sources for tsunamis are proposed. Tsunamis triggered by submarine landslides of 10–30 km3 could have severely impacted the northern Sinai and southern Levantine coasts but with weak effects in the eastern Nile Delta coastline. The lack of noticeable flooding in this area under the most favorable conditions for tsunamis, along with the time sequence of water elevations, make difficult to accept them as a plausible and literally explanation of the first plague and of the drowning of the Egyptian army in the surroundings of the former Shi-Hor Lagoon.

The Thera olive branch, Akrotiri (Thera) and Palaikastro (Crete): comparing radiocarbon results of the Santorini eruption

An olive branch is traditionally a symbol of peace, but not necessarily in the context of chronological problems in the Eastern Mediterranean region and the Near East during the second millennium BC. Cherubini et al. (above) strongly attack the radiocarbon dating by Friedrich et al. (2006) of an ancient olive branch, buried by volcanic tephra during the Minoan Santorini eruption. The criticism stems from their investigation of growth rings in modern olive trees on Santorini. The authors attempt with additional arguments, beyond their botanical investigation, to defend the traditional low chronology of the Santorini eruption of around 1500 BC. However, they ignore other crucial publications with radiocarbon dates concerning the Santorini eruption. In this response, we evaluate and negate their main arguments, and present our own conclusions.

Submarine evidence of a debris avalanche deposit on the eastern slope of Santorini volcano, Greece

Hummocky seafloor features were discovered on the eastern flank of Santorini volcano, Greece. Multibeam bathymetric mapping, airgun seismic profiling, side scan sonar survey, and remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives have been carried out to characterize the nature of the hummocks. These hummocks appear to be composed of several tens of blocks that are up to several hundred meters in diameter, and are the surface expression of a much larger deposit than is observed in the bathymetry. The sidescan and airgun data show that the deposit covers an area of approximately 6km wide by 20km long, and is up to 75m thick. We estimate the total volume of the deposit to be approximately 4.4×109m3. Sampling of these blocks show they are composed of pyroclastic flow deposits produced during the Minoan eruption of Santorini (ca. 3600BP). We propose that the deposit is the result of a multi-stage landslide event that was caused by one of the several large earthquakes or volcanic eruptions that have occurred in the vicinity of Santorini since the Minoan eruption. One or more of these events likely triggered the destabilization of a part of the eastern flank of Santorini, which led to a debris avalanche, depositing blocks and forming a hummocky terrain at the base of the island's slope. The mass movement later evolved into a turbulent suspension flow that traveled 20km or more from the presumed initial failure. Given the size of the landslide deposit, it might have a tsunami potentially affecting the islands across the southern Aegean Sea. The understanding of earthquake–landslide dynamics has important implications for hazard assessment in this seismically active, historical, and highly populated region of the world.

The Date of the Minoan Santorini Eruption: Quantifying the “Offset”

Despite many recent attempts to settle the dispute concerning the absolute date of the Minoan Santorini eruption, there are still differences between some archaeologists and scientists on the absolute dates and the reliability of radiocarbon dating. The recent publication of over 200 new14C dates for dynastic Egypt rules out a major flaw in the historical chronology of Egypt and proves the reliability of14C dating in the Nile Valley. Therefore, the student of Aegean archaeology and eastern Mediterranean interconnections is still confronted with an archaeologically based conventional, or “low,” chronology and a14C-backed “high” chronology. New14C determinations from different sites of the Aegean support the high chronology for the Late Minoan (LM) IA, while recent re-evaluation of LM IB determinations are slightly higher but more or less in agreement with archaeological estimations. The present contribution reviews archaeological and scientific data for the LM IA period and argues that a reduced (∼30 to 50 yr) offset between archaeological and14C dates for the Minoan Santorini eruption may be possible, thus offering new perspectives for potential solutions for this problem.

Karst depressions as geoarchaeological archives: The palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of Zominthos (Central Crete), based on geophysical prospection, sedimentological investigations and GIS

Sediment-filled karst depressions (e.g. dolines) have rarely been used as geoarchives in Greece due to an uncertainty about the thickness of accumulations and their vague suitability for palaeoenvironmental research. However, such terrestrial proxy-data sources can yield important records for the analysis of the Holocene landscape history. A multi-method approach was applied in order to evaluate the potential of colluvial fillings for reconstructing the geoarchaeological landscape in Mount Ida, Central Crete. Subsequent to an area-wide survey of appropriate karst hollows through remote sensing and GIS analyses, geophysical prospection (refraction seismics, earth resistivity tomography) was conducted at the most promising archive locations. Selective percussion drilling within the sinkholes provided vibra-cores for mineralogical and sedimentological investigations (grain size distribution, heavy- and light minerals, X-ray diffraction, thin sections) as well as AMS 14C dates. As demonstrated by the results, the dolines are partially filled by loose material up to 20 m b.s. and, thus, offer valuable information about the environmental history. The diversified sediment constitution indicates several geomorphodynamic oscillations and a polygenetic nature of the colluvial fills. XRD-spectra of clay minerals and quartz-grain morphology both indicate a significant aeolian dust contribution to soil formation and pedo-sediments. Glass shards and substantially heterogeneous heavy mineral compositions point to supra-regional origin and external volcanogenic deposits (Minoan eruption of Santorini, 3.6 ka). Regarding the hitherto discussed distribution of Z2 tephra in the Mediterranean, the spatial fallout must be revised as great amounts have also been deposited in the high mountains of Crete. Moreover, the redeposition of the sedimentary fills proves to be comparatively young since most materials were accumulated within the dolines post-eruptively. Huge and previously unknown subsurface archaeological remains strongly suggest that year-around settlement in the mid-Holocene might have been possible under better climatic conditions. The results imply that karst depressions serve as suitable geoarchives, particularly when investigated within a multi-method approach.

The Minoan Santorini Eruption and Tsunami Deposits in Palaikastro (Crete): Dating by Geology, Archaeology, 14C, and Egyptian Chronology

Deposits from the Minoan Santorini (Thera) eruption in the eastern Mediterranean region constitute the most important regional stratigraphic marker in the chronological perplexity of the 2nd millennium BCE. Extensive tsunami deposits were discovered in Crete at the Minoan archaeological site of Palaikastro, containing reworked volcanic Santorini ash. Hence, airborne deposition of volcanic ash, probably during the 1st (Plinian) eruption phase, preceded the tsunami, which was apparently generated during the 3rd or 4th phase of the eruption, based on evidence from Thera. Average radiocarbon dates (uncalibrated) of animal bones in the Palaikastro tsunami deposits along the coast (3350 ± 25 BP) and at the inland archaeological site (3352 ± 23 BP) are astoundingly similar to the average 14C date for the Minoan Santorini eruption at Akrotiri on Thera (3350 ± 10 BP). The wiggle-matched 14C date of the eruption in calendar years is 1627–1600 cal BCE. Late Minoan IA pottery is the youngest element in the Palaikastro tsunami deposits, fitting with the LM IA archaeological date for the Santorini eruption, conventionally linked at ~1500 BCE with Dynasty XVIII of the historical Egyptian chronology. The reasons for the discrepancy of 100–150 yr between 14C dating and Egyptian chronology for part of the 2nd millennium BCE are unknown. 14C dates from Tell el-Dabca in the eastern Nile Delta show that the 14C age of the Santorini eruption matches with 14C results from 18th Dynasty strata C3 and C2, thereby confirming grosso modo the conventional archaeo-historical correlations between the Aegean and Egypt. We propose that a dual dating system is used in parallel: (1) archaeological material-cultural correlations linked to Egyptian chronology; (2) 14C dating. Mixing of dates from the 2 systems may lead to erroneous archaeological and historical correlations. A “calibration curve” should be established between Egyptian chronology and 14C dating for the 2nd millennium BCE, which may also assist to resolve the cause of the discrepancy.

Geoarchaeological tsunami deposits at Palaikastro (Crete) and the Late Minoan IA eruption of Santorini

The explosive eruption at Santorini in the Aegean Sea during the second millennium BCE was the largest Holocene volcanic upheaval in the Eastern Mediterranean region. The eruption was disastrous for the Minoan settlements at Santorini, but the effect on human society in the neighbouring islands and regions is still clouded in uncertainty. Tsunami generation was suggested, but comparatively little evidence was found. The lack of firm tsunami traces is particularly puzzling in Crete with its coastal settlements of the Late Minoan IA period, during which the Santorini eruption occurred. Here, we report the discovery of extensive geoarchaeological tsunami deposits at Palaikastro in north-eastern Crete. These deposits are characterized by a mixture of geological materials, including volcanic Santorini ash, and archaeological settlement debris. Various tsunami signatures were identified: (1) erosional contact with the underlying strata, (2) volcanic ash intraclasts in the lower part of the deposit, (3) reworked building stone material in the lower part of the deposit, (4) individual marine shells, (5) marine micro-fauna, (6) imbrication of rounded beach pebbles, settlement debris, ceramic sherds and even bones, (7) multi-modal chaotic composition. Late Minoan human settlement activities at Palaikastro provided architectural and stratigraphic frameworks in space and time that recorded and preserved tsunami evidence as geoarchaeological deposits. Such stratigraphic resolution and preservation may not occur in the natural landscape. Volcanic ash transported by wind from Santorini south-east to Crete preceded the tsunami. Geological, archaeological and radiocarbon dating criteria all converge, indicating that the tsunami deposits are coeval with the Minoan Santorini eruption. Field evidence suggests that tsunami waves at Palaikastro were at least 9 m high. Inverse tsunami modeling was attempted, based on these newly discovered tsunamigenic deposits. The initial wave in the generation region at Santorini that best fits the stratigraphic data is a wave with +35 to −15 m initial amplitude and a crest length of about 15 km.

Trace-element composition of single glass shards in distal Minoan tephra from SW Turkey

Volcanic glass from the seventeenth century bc ( c . 3600 bp ) Minoan eruption of Santorini (Thera) has been recovered from a 4 cm thick tephra deposit at Gölhisar Gölü, a small lake in SW Turkey. Analysis of single grains of this glass by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) provides, for the first time, an accurate determination of the trace element composition of the juvenile glass component of this eruption, free from contaminants such as phenocrysts or detrital material. Individual glass shards (>150 μm) show a large degree of variation in their trace element composition, indicative of substantial, small-scale compositional heterogeneity in the magma. This is a result of the proximity of crystallizing phases, and provides insights into the chemical evolution of the Minoan magma. The range of elemental compositions displayed by individual glass shards combined with the consistency of many trace element ratios are characteristics of the Minoan glass. These features provide a trace element signature for the Minoan tephra, which will be of value in stratigraphic correlation across the Eastern Mediterranean.

Magnetic properties and geochemistry of the active oxidation front and the youngest sapropel in the eastern Mediterranean Sea

SUMMARY Magnetic properties (IRM, ARM, xin, S-ratio at 0.3 T, room temperature (RT) hysteresis and thermomagnetic curves) and geochemical data (Fe, S, Mn, Al, Ti, organic C) were studied in two eastern Mediterranean boxcores (ABC26 and BC19) at a resolution of 3‐5 mm. The boxcores contain sapropel S1 (9‐6 kyr BP) at a few decimetres below seafloor. The magnetic fraction consists predominantly of single-domain (SD) to pseudo-singledomain (PSD) magnetite in the entire cores. The original input of magnetic grains comes from two sources: aeolian dust (both cores) and volcanic ash from the Minoan eruption of Santorini (core BC19 only). Non-steady-state diagenesis has changed the magnetic mineralogy considerably in these alternating organic-rich/organic-poor sediments. During deposition of sapropel S1, reductive diagenesis and pyritization in and just below the sapropel caused lower magnetic intensities, coarser magnetic grain sizes and partial maghemitization. In thermomagnetic curves two types of pyrite can be identified: one oxidizes below 450 uC and the other above 450 uC. The higher oxidation temperature is predominantly found below the sapropel. This may be related to the microtexture of pyrite, which is euhedral below sapropels and mainly framboidal within sapropels. Since the end of sapropel deposition a downward moving oxidation front has oxidized the upper half (c. 5 cm) of the sapropel. The oxidized part of the sapropel is enriched in diagenetically formed Fe oxides with relatively high coercivity and ARM. The maximum coercivity is found in a distinct layer between the present-day Mn- and Fe-redox boundaries at the top of the unoxidized sapropel. The freshly precipitated Fe oxides in this centimetre-thick layer contain a mixture of superparamagnetic (SP) grains and high-coercivity SD magnetite. Higher in the oxidized zone the freshly precipitated Fe oxides have aged into generally slightly lower-coercivity SD grains, with relatively high ARM. In addition to the diagenetic formation of Fe oxides at the top of the sapropel, formation of a ferrimagnetic Fe monosulphide may have occurred within the sapropel during later stages of diagenesis, which may have enhanced the ARM signal in the organic-rich interval in particular.

Holocene environmental change in southwest Turkey: a palaeoecological record of lake and catchment-related changes

Percentage, concentration and accumulation pollen data together with diatom and non-siliceous microfossil data are presented for the site of Gölhisar Gölü (37°8′N, 29°36′E; elevation 930 m), a small intramontane lake in Burdur Province, southwest Turkey. Microfossil assemblages from the longest sediment core (GHA: 813 cm) record changes in local and regional vegetation and lake productivity over the last ∼9500 years. Pollen spectra indicate that vegetation progressed from an open landscape with an increase in arboreal pollen occurring ∼8500 bp to mixed forest comprising oak, pine and juniper until around 3000 bp (Cal ∼1240 BC) when a human occupation phase becomes discernible from the pollen spectra. This occurs shortly after the deposition of a volcanic tephra layer which originated from the Minoan eruption of Santorini (Thera) and radiocarbon dated to 3330±70 yr bp (Cal ∼1600 BC). This human occupation phase is comparable to the Beyşehir Occupation phase recorded at other sites in southwest Turkey and involved forest clearance and the cultivation of fruit trees such as Olea, Juglans, Castanea and Vitis together with arable cereal growing and pastoralism. The presence of pollen types associated with the Beyşehir Occupation phase in deposits above the Santorini tephra layer confirms a Late Bronze Age/early Anatolian Dark Age date for its commencement. Since ∼3000 bp notable changes in aquatic ecology associated with tephra deposition and subsequent nutrient and sediment flux from the lake catchment are recorded. The Beyşehir Occupation phase at Gölhisar Gölü came to an end around 1300 bp (Cla AD ∼700) when pine appears to have become the dominant forest tree.

Tephra from the Minoan eruption of Santorini in sediments of the Black Sea

THE explosive eruption of Santorini volcano in the Aegean Sea about 3,300 years ago is of considerable archaeological and volcanological significance1–5. Here we report the discovery of tephra from this Minoan event in laminated sediments of the Black Sea. This finding provides constraints on the distribution of debris from the eruption. We estimate a minimum fallout area of 2×l06 km2 extending from the Black Sea in the north to the southeastern Mediterranean Sea. The main dispersal axis trends through southern Turkey, in agreement with other studies of Minoan tephra6,7. The tephra deposits should provide a useful reference horizon for assessing the chronology of Black Sea sediments, which has been much debated8–15.

The Minoan eruption of Santorini in Greece dated to 1645 BC?

The eruption on Santorini (Thera: 36.40° N, 25.40° E) in the Aegean Sea during Late Minoan time is considered the most violent volcanic event in the Mediterranean in the second millennium BC. The eruption buried a number of developing Bronze Age settlements on the island (one of which is presently being excavated at the village Akrotiri1) and spread huge amounts of tephra over the eastern Mediterranean and adjacent lands2–7. This event is therefore an important time marker both for archaeologists and Earth scientists. A dating of the eruption has previously been attempted by archaeological inference1,8 and by radiocarbon dating, but the two methods have tended to give ages that deviate by up to 150 years. Here we present a new ice-core dating of the eruption, which suggests an age of 1645 BC based on variations in acid fallout in the annual ice layers in a core drilled at the site Dye 3 (65.18° N, 43.49° W) in South Greenland.

Late Quaternary sedimentation in the Tyro and Kretheus basins, southeast of Crete

This paper summarizes micropaleontologic (foraminifera, calcareous nannoplankton, radiolaria, pteropods and pollen grains) and sedimentologic piston core data from the Eastern Mediterranean Tyro and Kretheus basins. 14C datings indicate a Holocene age for the Tyro Basin cores. The latter show anoxic bottom conditions throughout, while the Kretheus Basin core indicates anoxic conditions prior to 3000 years ago and oxic conditions after that time. Resedimentation — through slumps, turbidity currents and from suspension — resulted in high sediment accumulation rates in both basins. Reworking in the Tyro Basin predominantly originated from the basin flanks, while the presence of common to abundant metamorphic clastics in the Kretheus Basin points to a more distant source. The Minoan eruption of Santorini (ca.3350 yrs B.P.) which is supposed to have caused a gigantic tsunami, is linked to the presence of turbidites and a thick homogenite in the Tyro Basin. The same event may be responsible for the initiation of oxic conditions in the Kretheus Basin.

Remanent magnetism of poorly sorted deposits from the Minoan eruption of Santorini

Thick, poorly sorted ash deposits produced during the Minoan cruption have differing palacomagnetic histories. Included clasts from deposits produced in the second phase of the eruption have random NRM and cleaned directions and were emplaced as cold mudflows. Clasts from ignimbrite flow units erupted in the third phase have significant directions and their palacomagnetic pole is consistent with today’s geomagnetic pole. These deposits acquired a TRM on deposition and were emplaced as hot pumice flows.