Minimum Aspect Ratio Research Articles

Synthesis of ZnO NWs via Thermal Evaporation Technique

Zinc oxide nanowires ZnONWs were successfully synthesized on glass slides. The synthesis was conducted firstly by the deposition of 12 µm a thin film of Zn metal by thermal evaporation. Secondly,the coated film was annealed at a temperature of 600 ºC in air for four hours to grow the ZnO nanowires. It have been observed that the produced nanowires were grown in a vertical orientation and having a high density, very long, and a minimal aspect ratio. The crystal structure and morphology of ZnO nanowires were investigated with X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The UV-visible spectrophotometer was also used to calculate the optical parameters from the absorption spectrum and show a band gap energy around 3.25 eV. The crystal structure of the material was revealed to be polycrystalline with a preferred orientation in the direction of [101]. Small average crystallite size was calculated about 17nm The wires can be measured to have a length of around 10 µm with diameters ranging from 50 to 100 nm. This could be used for gas sensor applications. In addition, this ZnONWs structure has a maximum transmittance (100%) which can be a good candidate for many optoelectronic apllications.

Grading scalping and sample size effects on critical shear strength of mine waste rock through laboratory and in-situ testing

Geotechnical stability analyses of mine waste rock (WR) piles require the critical friction angle (ϕcr) of the coarse blasted rock. However, due to the presence of oversized rock clasts, shear strength can only be characterized on small samples prepared using grading scaling techniques, such as scalping. Thus, considering a testing device able to handle samples of characteristic size D, the material should be scaled down to a maximum particle size dmax given by the minimum sample aspect ratio α = D/dmax. However, a practical concern about how far the size scale can be reduced while keeping representative results remains a matter of debate in the geotechnical community. International standards do not agree on the minimum recommended α, and its effects on the mechanical behavior remain poorly understood. This paper aims to investigate the grading effects and sample size effects on ϕcr of WR materials using the scalping technique, to provide insights on the minimum recommended α. Triaxial tests were conducted on loose and dense samples of diameters D = 150 and 300 mm. Samples were scalped from field material having dmax = 75 mm, to allow a range of α from 4 to 30. Additionally, one of the world largest in-situ direct shear boxes (120 × 120 × 38 cm3) was developed to test the same WR material. The results show that scalping is an appropriate technique to assess the critical shear strength of WR. The minimum α for ϕcr assessment in triaxial testing is not sensitive to grading nor sample size, but it is affected by sample density. The aspect ratio was found to be α ≥ 12 and α ≥ 16 for loose and dense samples, respectively. This finding advocates that α values recommended by worldwide standards, such as ASTM D7181-20, might be too low and should be revisited after comprehensive testing.

Study of extraction and characterization of ultimate kenaf fibres

This study proposed an extraction process of Tunisian kenaf fibres to obtain ultimate fibres with minimum aspect ratio, minimum retention capacity and high yield and high absorption capacity. The extraction process was performed by varying the treatment duration (120–180 min), the temperature (110–130°C), and the sodium concentration (10–40 g/l). After that, a factorial design, that has been built using statistical software Minitab.17, was followed to identify the optimum operating conditions. After the extraction process, kenaf fibres were used to produce dry-laid nonwoven fabrics. Results reveal that mixed treatment improves the absorption properties of fibres. To characterize these fibres, some properties were measured like morphological structure and absorption properties: absorption and retention capacity. The morphology of the cellulose fibres (length and, diameter distribution), obtained from the optimum process, was determined by measuring 300 fibres with «Leica» optical microscopy. Ultimate fibres extracted from kenaf had an absorption capacity of 12.5 g/g and a retention capacity of 0.65 g/g. Finally, the characteristics of the optimum ultimate kenaf were compared to those of other vegetable fibres.

Enhanced Out-of-Stock Detection in Retail Shelf Images Based on Deep Learning.

The term out-of-stock (OOS) describes a problem that occurs when shoppers come to a store and the product they are seeking is not present on its designated shelf. Missing products generate huge sales losses and may lead to a declining reputation or the loss of loyal customers. In this paper, we propose a novel deep-learning (DL)-based OOS-detection method that utilizes a two-stage training process and a post-processing technique designed for the removal of inaccurate detections. To develop the method, we utilized an OOS detection dataset that contains a commonly used fully empty OOS class and a novel class that represents the frontal OOS. We present a new image augmentation procedure in which some existing OOS instances are enlarged by duplicating and mirroring themselves over nearby products. An object-detection model is first pre-trained using only augmented shelf images and, then, fine-tuned on the original data. During the inference, the detected OOS instances are post-processed based on their aspect ratio. In particular, the detected instances are discarded if their aspect ratio is higher than the maximum or lower than the minimum instance aspect ratio found in the dataset. The experimental results showed that the proposed method outperforms the existing DL-based OOS-detection methods and detects fully empty and frontal OOS instances with 86.3% and 83.7% of the average precision, respectively.

Stress analysis of bias extension specimens

The Bias Extension test is commonly used for material characterisation in shear, providing essential input to composites forming simulations. Specimens of different sizes are used, with some preference for the minimum length-to-width ratio of 2. A static equilibrium analysis is presented to derive the forces and stress distribution in a test specimen of this minimum aspect ratio. The stress distribution is shown to depend on two variables, while usually only one (the pulling force) is measured. The central region of relatively longer specimens is generally subject to non-homogeneous boundary conditions, causing non-uniform deformations which can hamper accurate material characterisation. In addition, the analysis demonstrates that the major part of the pulling force is carried by the outer fibres, further emphasising the need for critical preparation and evaluation of bias extension testing if high accuracy characterisation is needed.

Deformation characteristics of an ultra-deep and small-scale rectangular excavation in Hangzhou soft clay

A stereogarage excavation was carried out in Hangzhou soft clay. The excavation was approximately 46.2 m deep, 10.8 m wide, and 24.4 m long. The spatial effect of this excavation was expected to be significant because of the minimum aspect ratio of B/He = 0.23, where B is the excavation width and He is the final excavation depth. This study examined the deformation characteristics of this ultra-deep and small-scale rectangular excavation through a comprehensive instrumentation program. Analyses of field data indicated that owing to the spatial effect, the maximum wall deformation.δhm and ground settlement δvm were less than 0.2% and 0.04% of the excavation depth, respectively, which were substantially smaller than those of similar excavation projects. For the ultra-deep excavation, the location of the maximum wall deformation was dominated by both excavation depth and stratum distribution. Construction of diaphragm walls and soil improvement prior to excavation caused significant building settlements, which accounted for 30%–50% of the total settlements. This project could serve as a special case study and provide insights into the design and construction of stereogarages in metropolitan environments with soft soil deposits.

Evaluating the effect of nanofillers on cement-based composites strength via artificial neural network and genetic algorithm

This paper investigated the contributions of nanofillers’ characteristics and contents on the strength of cement-based composites. For this purpose, an artificial neural network and genetic algorithm model was developed based on 150 compressive/splitting tensile experimental results of cement-based composites, comprehensively considering chemical compositions (silica, titania, zirconia, carbon, and boron nitride nanofillers), physical dimensions (minimum size, aspect ratio, and diameter-thickness ratio), surface treatments (surface hydroxyl treatment and surface nickel coating), and contents of nanofillers. The research results indicated that the chemical compositions, physical dimensions, surface treatments, and contents of nanofillers present distinct effects on the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of cement-based composites. The chemical compositions and surface treatment of nanofillers are the primary factors determining the compressive strength of nano-engineered cement-based composites, and the influence weights of carbon and surface hydroxyl treatment are 41.6% and 12.0%, respectively., respectively. In contrast, the splitting tensile strength of nano-engineered cement-based composites is notably affected by the diameter-thickness ratio and minimum size of nanofillers, and the corresponding influence weights equal to 28.2% and 17.3%, respectively. These findings provide a guideline for designing and controlling the strength of nano-engineered cement-based composites.

Effect of Magnesium Treatment and Cooling Method on Manganese Sulfide in U75V Heavy‐Rail Steel Deoxidized by Si–Mn

The effect of magnesium (Mg) on the morphology of sulfides in silicon–manganese deoxidized low‐sulfur and low‐aluminum steels is investigated by adding different amounts of nickel–magnesium (Ni–Mg) alloy to a heavy‐rail steel U75V melt and cooling the melt from 1600 °C to room temperature under different conditions. Herein, the effects of Mg content and cooling rate on MnS inclusions are investigated. It is indicated that with an increase in the Mg content in molten steel from 0 to 64 ppm, the main composition of inclusions changes following the path of CaO–SiO2–Al2O3 → MgO–Al2O3–MnS → MgO–MnS–MgS. Mg significantly inhibits the precipitation of long‐strip MnS and can decrease the average size and aspect ratio of the inclusions. Under furnace cooling, when Mg is 41 ppm, the minimum aspect ratio of the inclusions is 1.61. The higher the cooling rate, the smaller the inclusion size; however, compared to water and furnace coolings, with cooling rates of 126.3 and 0.12 °C s−1, respectively, the inclusion aspect ratio of the air‐cooling conditions with a cooling rate of 67.7 °C s−1 is low. Finally, thermal simulations verify the effect of Mg treatment on the suppression of MnS deformation during rolling.

Automatic Detection of CFRP Subsurface Defects via Thermal Signals in Long Pulse and Lock-In Thermography

Thermography is widely used to detect delamination defects in carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP). This paper proposes a model to detect defects automatically by extracting the thermal signal characteristics of CFRP materials. An optically excited thermography system is constructed for pulsed and lock-in thermography experiments to compare thermal signal data sets in different excitation modes. A multi-task joint loss function is defined to train the model for defect detection and depth prediction. The effects of different attention modules (AM) are analyzed to improve the model performance. By comparing the effects of traditional thermography processing methods and methods based on Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), it is found that the proposed model can detect defects with minimum aspect ratio (ratio of short side to depth) of 2.5, and the relative error percentage in depth prediction is below 10%.

Study of mechanical characteristics of additively manufactured Co-Cr-Mo-2/4/6Ti alloys for knee implant material

This paper presents study of microstructure, aspect ratio (i.e. ratio of deposition width to deposition height), tensile and compression testing results along with their fractography, and abrasion resistance of the optimized depositions of new materials for knee implant developed by adding 2, 4, and 6 wt% of Ti to Co-Cr-Mo alloy by μ-plasma based additive manufacturing process. It is complemented with finite element analysis of tibial tray made of the developed alloys. Minimum aspect ratio of 1.11 and continuous deposition was obtained for 264 W μ-plasma power, 2.5 g/min deposition material powder mass flow rate, and 50 mm/min deposition head travel speed. Hence it was used for manufacturing multi-layer multi-track depositions of powder of Co-Cr-Mo-xTi alloys. Co-Cr-Mo-xTi alloys showed high % of Co-rich matrix consisting of α-Co phase formed to minor alloying elements Ni and Fe and ε-Co phase stabilized by molybdenum, ß-Ti phase, inter-metallic phase CoTi 2 , and lamellar chromium carbides Cr 7 C 3 and Cr 23 C 6 on grain boundaries which will impart more wear and corrosion resistance to Co-Cr-xTi alloys. Their samples fractured within their gauge length with slight localized necking indicating strain localization in a very small region before their ductile fracture during their tensile testing. Optimized deposition of Cr-Co-Mo-4Ti alloy has more uniform distribution of porosity and absence of thermal crack which is desirable for knee implant material as it allows better osseointegration with the human bones and tissues. It has higher tensile and compressive yield strength, ultimate tensile and compressive strength, and ductility indicated by higher % elongation and % increase in cross-section area due to more uniform porous structure, finer grain size, absence of thermal cracks, and presence of chromium carbide phases which obstruct movement of dislocations. It also has minimum value of avg. scratch track width and coefficient of friction, and maximum value of scratch hardness number imparting it better abrasion resistance due to presence of fine lamellar carbide phases. Finite element analysis of tibial tray revealed that equivalent Von-Mises stress and total deformation increase with increase in wt% of Ti in Co-Cr-Mo alloy. This study found Co-Cr-Mo-4Ti alloy as a better knee implant material due to its uniform porosity without thermal cracks, finer grain size, higher yield compressive and tensile strength, higher ductility, and abrasion resistance. • Optimized multi-layer multi-track deposition of Co-Cr-Mo-xTi alloys for better knee implant material. • Equivalent Von-Mises stress and total deformation increase with wt% of Ti in Co-Cr-Mo alloy. • Co-Cr-Mo-xTi alloys have α-Co, ε-Co, ß-Ti, CoTi 2 phases, and Cr 7 C 3 and Cr 23 C 6 on grain boundaries. • Uniform porosity without micro-cracks gives higher tensile and compressive strength to Co-Cr-Mo-4Ti. • Its finer grains, higher abrasion resistance, lower friction coefficient make it better knee implant material.

Assessment of the size and shape of berries using the ImageJ program on the example of honeysuckle

Background. Digital technologies are increasingly used in agriculture to solve a variety of problems. However, in horticulture and industrial production of fruit and berry crops, qualitative evaluation and scoring of the most important morphological indicators of fruits are still common, and measurements are carried out manually. The aim of this study was to develop an algorithm for using the ImageJ package for quick and accurate measurements of the size and shape of berries.Materials and methods. The material included 190 berries of 3 blue honeysuckle (Lonicera caerulea L.) cultivars: ‘Amazonka’, ‘Lazurit’, and ‘Lenita’. The berries were laid out on a white sheet of paper with a ruler on top of the glass and photographed with additional lighting from below. The analysis of the obtained images was carried out using the public domain package ImageJ (v. 1.51k) and included automatic search for objects and their measurement by 7 indicators: area, perimeter, maximum and minimum Feret diameters, aspect ratio, circularity, and surface roundness (1-Solidity). Statistical analysis included the calculation of the minimum, maximum and mean values with a nonparametric 95% CI (bootstrap, percentile method), comparison of cultivars using the Kruskal–Wallis test, and search for the most typical objects based on the results of a between-group PCA.Results. It was shown how the size and shape indicators from the ImageJ package related to classical measurements in pomology, including length, diameter, and berry shape index. For all indicators, the differences between cultivars were highly statistically significant (p < 0.001). The prospects of using the surface roughness index for quantitative characterization of the degree of deviation of fruits from their natural shape due to mechanical and other deformations are discussed.Conclusion. The results of the automatic image analysis in the ImageJ package can be used in horticulture, breeding, and production of fruits and berries.

Bubble hydrodynamics of adding fine particles in 2D pulsed fluidized bed

The bubbling behavior of powders in the range of 30–2600 µm is well understood. However, the bubbling behavior in binary-medium pulsed fluidized beds is complex and has received little attention. Therefore, Geldart C and B magnetite powders were mixed to form a dense medium. The effects of C particles and frequency on the minimum fluidization gas velocity, bubble area, number, shape factor, and aspect ratio were studied. The results show that the introduction of pulsating energy can increase the bubble area but decrease the number of bubbles. Under an appropriate content of fine particles, the pulsating energy increases the bubble shape factor and reduces the aspect ratio. A bubble size growth model was developed. A pulsed fluidized bed mixed-medium minimum fluidization velocity model was developed with 10% error. A pulsed fluidized bed bubble size model was developed with a prediction error of 10% or less.

The Application and Development Trend of Youth Sports Simulation Based on Computer Vision

Based on computer vision technology, this paper presents a human motion analysis and target tracking technology based on computer vision. In terms of moving target detection, the current moving target detection technology is summarized, and some experimental results of the algorithm are given. The background difference method under monocular camera is emphatically analyzed. The preliminary human contour is obtained by the background difference method. In order to obtain a smoother target contour, the mathematical morphology is used to remove the noise, and the judgment algorithm of the size of the image connected domain is added. A specific threshold is set to remove the connected domain of the noise block less than the threshold. In the aspect of human motion recognition, this paper selects human motion features, including minimum external rectangle aspect ratio, rectangularity, circularity, and moment invariant. The criteria for selecting human motion features are strong noise resistance and obvious distinction. Then, the three types of human motion images are classified and recognized. After cross-validation and parameter optimization, the recognition accuracy is significantly improved. The experimental results show that the video sequence collected in the field has a total of 376 frames, and the frame rate is 10 frames/s. Due to the small traffic, the mean shift algorithm based on adaptive feature fusion is used to track the target every 2-3 frames. And set the inverse X direction as the direction of entering the scene and the X direction as the direction of moving out of the scene so that the allowable error of the distance between the detection and tracking results is 10. The weight of each feature is dynamically updated by the similarity between the candidate model and the target model, which solves the problem that the mean shift algorithm is not robust enough when similar objects are occluded and interfered and achieves more accurate tracking.

How far below the critical Rayleigh number can convection occur in temperature-dependent viscosity fluids?

We use 2D numerical simulations to study the onset of convection below the critical Rayleigh number in a basally-heated fluid with temperature-dependent viscosity. The existence of convection below the critical Rayleigh number has previously been demonstrated in variable-viscosity fluids. Under these, subcritical conditions, convection can be initiated by finite-amplitude perturbations and can assume a number of different steady-state planforms. We find the absolute minimum critical Rayleigh number and aspect ratio for the onset of subcritical convection in a broad range of viscosity contrasts. For various planetary bodies, the threshold for the onset of convection by finite-amplitude perturbations is about 40% below the critical Rayleigh number. The lowest viscosity contrast at which subcritical convection can occur is 1.3 × 102. The existence of subcritical regime extends the range of conditions under which convection can occur in planetary interiors and expands the assortment of possible convective planforms that can explain various surface features on planetary bodies.

High-fidelity subsurface resistivity imaging incorporating borehole measurements for monitoring underground construction

Subsurface imaging by electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is increasingly used in geotechnical, geo-environmental, and hydrogeological investigation and monitoring. Cross-hole ERT (CHERT) is often used to avoid loss of resolution with increasing depth. However, symmetric artifacts may be induced because the measurement sensitivity around boreholes for some electrode configurations is fairly symmetric. This study aimed to investigate the best practice of ERT for monitoring underground construction or process through an actual scenario of ground improvement with jet grouting columns. The limitation of conventional surface ERT method was first vividly illustrated in an easy-to-understand context. Characteristics and performances of distinct types of CHERT configurations were then studied considering different borehole spacings. Further improvements were explored by evaluating various mixed arrays, model resolution-optimized array, and the comprehensive array. The results show the necessity of mixing two distinct types of electrode configuration. Among various combinations, a combination referred to as the nominal optimal (NOPT) is recommended when imaging resolution, the symmetric effect, and the measurement efficiency are all factored in. Unexpectedly, the resolution-based optimization does not lead to better results and could even induce negative effects. The results also show that the minimum aspect ratio of 2 may not be large enough for imaging complex underground conditions due to reduced sensitivity and increased 3D effect. The above findings are justified by the eigenvalue spectrum of the Hessian matrix, which is considered a better appraisal index than the model resolution for CHERT.

Morphology and Size Distribution of Naturally Occurring Asbestos using TEM in Landscape Rock in Parks

This study provided data that can be used to discriminate asbestiform and non-asbestiform amphiboles contained in landscaping rocks in recreational parks. The length and width of fibers being at least 5 μm long and with a minimum aspect ratio of 3:1 were measured using a transmission electron microscope and compared to an asbestos reference sample. The park samples were thicker than 1 μm (average 1.9 μm), while the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) reference sample averaged 0.3 μm in width, with 100% being thinner than 1.0 μm. The average aspect ratios were 7.1 for the park samples and 67.1 for the HSE reference sample. Based on these distributions, the amphibole fibers in sampled landscape rocks were thicker and had a lower aspect ratio than the reference sample. These results suggest that actinolite fibers in sampled landscape rocks cannot be classified into commercial-grade asbestos. This study can contribute to public policy for managing and controlling landscaping rocks containing naturally occurring asbestos (NOA) and be used to communicate the possible resulting health risks. Key Words: Naturally Occurring Asbestos(NOA), Amphibole, Width, Aspect ratio, Landscape rock

A comparative study of Ni75Fe25 microcomponents fabricated by microelectroforming and micromolding

Abstract NiFe alloy microcomponents are widely used in electromagnetic devices and microelectromechanical systems due to high saturation magnetization and low coercivity. In this paper, freestanding Ni75Fe25 microcomponents are fabricated by both microelectroforming and micromolding. The microstructure, microhardness, and magnetic property of Ni75Fe25 microcomponents fabricated by the two methods are systematically investigated. The microstructure is characterized by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and electron backscatter diffraction. The magnetic property is examined by a vibrating sample magnetometer. The formability of those two methods is evaluated by the minimum feature size and maximum aspect ratio that can be achieved. The results show that nanocrystalline and microcrystalline Ni75Fe25 microcomponents with a FCC Ni3Fe phase are fabricated by microelectroforming and micromolding, respectively. Compared with micromolded Ni75Fe25 microcomponents, microelectroformed ones have higher dimensional precision, lower surface roughness, greater microhardness, and higher saturation magnetization because of the nanosized grains, whereas micromolded Ni75Fe25 microcomponents have smaller feature size, larger aspect ratio, and lower coercivity.

Effect of aspect ratio on the recirculation region of 35° Ahmed body

ABSTRACT This paper reports a numerical investigation of the effect of aspect ratio (AR) on the flow structure around the 35° Ahmed body. The AR is defined as the ratio of length to the height of the model. A total of five ARs are considered at a Reynolds number based on the height of the Ahmed body of 7.8 105. The flow governing equations are solved in the FLUENT solver using the SST K-Omega turbulence model. It is found that the drag coefficient (Cd) slightly increases at the AR1 4.2%. As the aspect ratio increases, the drag coefficient decreases. The analysis reveals that early flow separation in the AR1 causes a reattachment at the rear slant end, which leads to an increase in drag. It also highlights that there exists a minimum aspect ratio beyond which the drag increases. and there is a limit in the increasing order beyond which the drag will begin to reduce. Further, it demonstrates that there is no change in the recirculation region and consequently drag coefficient is not a function of the recirculation region. Thence, a clear understanding of the effect of the length-based aspect ratio can help to optimize the length during design.

A differential temperature contour map to characterize the detection limit of pulsed thermography of materials

Pulsed thermography has been widely used in the inspection of composite materials. The detection limit of pulsed thermography of the materials is often a question being concerned by end users. However, the detection limit cannot be described only by a simple parameter, and is affected by many factors associated with the defect, material, excitation, infrared camera and data processing algorithm. The current concept of detection limit defined with the minimum detectable size, the maximum detectable depth or the minimum aspect ratio depends on the specific experimental conditions, and it lacks universality when the extrinsic experimental conditions change. The aim of this paper is to establish a unified standard model of the detection limit which can be applied to various experimental conditions. The solution was to decouple the material’s intrinsic thermal property and extrinsic experimental condition dependencies and then allow them to be described independently. A new expression of the detection limit of the PT was firstly proposed by creating a differential temperature contour map. Taking delaminations in a C/SiC composite as detecting defects, an experiment was conducted to assess the feasibility and the detection limit, and to evaluate the noise level in practice. The influences of defect size and defect depth on the defect informative parameters were analyzed by using the finite element method based on 2D modeling. Eventually, the differential temperature contour map was calculated for the pulsed thermography of delaminations of C/SiC composites. The results show that the differential temperature contour map proposed can strictly describe the detection limit due to its differential temperature invariance property, and it provides a comprehensive tool to consider many experimental parameters including thermal excitation energy intensity, noise level, and SNR threshold by using a criterion equation in practice.

Nanoparticle size and 3D shape measurement by electron tomography: An Inter-Laboratory Comparison

Electron tomography (ET) has been used for quantitative measurement of shape and size of objects in three dimensions (3D) for many years. However, systematic investigation of repeatability and reproducibility of ET has not been evaluated in detail. To assess the reproducibility and repeatability of a protocol for measuring size and three-dimensional (3D) shape parameters for nanoparticles (NPs) by ET, an inter-laboratory comparison (ILC) has been performed. The ILC included six laboratories and six instruments models from three instrument manufacturers following a standard measurement protocol.A technical specification describing the normative steps of the protocol is published by the International Standards Organization (ISO). Gold NPs with 30 nm nominal diameter contained within a rod-shaped carbon support were measured. The use of a rod-shaped sample support eliminated the missing wedge effect in the experimental tilt series of projected images for improved quantification. A total of 443 NPs were initially measured by NRC-NANO and then 115 out of the 443 NPs were measured by five other labs to compare measurands such as the Volume (V), maximum Feret diameter (Fmax), minimum Feret diameter (Fmin), volume-equivalent diameter (Deq) and aspect ratio (Frat) of the NPs. The results of the five labs were compared with the results obtained at NRC-NANO. The maximum disagreement in measurements of Fmin and Fmax obtained by the participating labs did not exceed 7 %. The measured Deq was between 27.5 nm and 30.3 nm in agreement with the NP manufacturer’s specification (28 nm–32 nm). In addition to the above, the influence of the missing wedge effect and beam-induced NP movement was quantified based on the differences of the results between labs.