Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement Research Articles

The roles of readiness and dosage in predicting outcomes of a mindful sport performance enhancement intervention with U.S. college student-athletes

Research suggests that Mindfulness- and Acceptance-Based Interventions (MABIs) can impact sport performance and performance-relevant factors, though questions remain regarding when and for whom MABIs are effective. Specifically, inquiries into intervention engagement (i.e., dosage), potentially impacted by participant readiness, are needed. The present study utilized a non-randomized control group design with U.S. collegiate athletes to investigate MABI effects. Four teams from two universities in the Appalachian region (N = 57) engaged in Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) interventions during their offseason or pre-season training period. Participants were assessed on flow, psychological distress, mindfulness, emotion regulation difficulties, life satisfaction, readiness to practice mindfulness, attitudes toward sport psychology, and sport performance and enjoyment. Mindfulness dosage was measured weekly via self-report. Compared to controls, initial MSPE participants reported reductions in depressive symptoms and emotion regulation difficulties, and improvements in self-rated sport performance; at 6-week follow-up, initial MSPE participants reported significant increases in mindfulness and sport enjoyment, in addition to sustained reductions in emotion regulation difficulties. Pre-intervention readiness was not associated with changes across the intervention, though higher post-intervention readiness was associated with improvements in mindfulness, life satisfaction, and sport enjoyment. Higher post-intervention readiness was also associated with significantly more engagement (i.e., dosage), though no evidence indicated that dosage moderated the relationship between readiness and outcomes. These data suggest that post-intervention readiness may impact long-term engagement in mindfulness practice, and that pre-intervention readiness may not be an accurate indicator of engagement in or outcomes of an MABI with athletes.

An Independent Examination of the Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement Protocol in National Collegiate Athletic Association Swimming and Diving

The mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE) protocol is designed to enhance mindfulness, emotional regulation, and attentional awareness and control. The MSPE consists of trainer led group sessions teaching the concepts of mindfulness through discussion and meditation practice. However, little research has tested the MSPE protocol’s adaptability and generalizability to National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division-I teams and practitioners independent of the MSPE protocol’s creators. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to test the efficacy of an adapted MSPE protocol. The adapted MSPE protocol was delivered to a NCAA Division I team while a second team participated as a potentially equivalent control group. Both teams completed measures of attentional control, flow, rumination, and mindful attention as primary outcome variables. Results revealed significant decreases in rumination and trait anxiety, as well as improvements in concentration control and focusing ability compared with the control group. Findings support the external validity of the MSPE protocol to adapt to independent practitioners and a previously unstudied combination of sport and level of competition.

Online Dispositional Flow Enhancement Training for Chinese Recreational Runners: A Single-Group Mixed-method Evaluation

Background: There are limited studies examining the effectiveness of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) on dispositional flow enhancement in the recreational population. This is the first empirical evaluation of an online 4-week MSPE designed to enhance dispositional flow in Chinese recreational runners.

A randomized controlled study of mindful sport performance enhancement and psychological skills training with collegiate track and field athletes

Although both traditional cognitive behavioral psychological skills training (PST) interventions and mindfulness-based alternatives can lead to improvements in sport performance and athlete well-being, recent reviews and meta-analyses support the need for more outcome research with randomized designs. The present randomized controlled trial with members of an NCAA Division III Track and Field team was the first to compare a 6-week Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE; K. A. Kaufman et al., 2018) training to a PST active control group, using a mixed-method approach with both quantitative and qualitative assessment and a train-the-trainer model of intervention delivery. The 24 student-athletes who completed post-test measures showed significant improvements in sport anxiety, and reported greater sport enjoyment and less influence of negative internal states on current sport performance; the MSPE group reported greater improvements in satisfaction with sport performance compared to PST. Qualitative responses suggested that both programs were helpful both for sport and everyday life, while some differential effects for interventions were also noted. The program evaluation measure additionally revealed a moderate degree of program acceptability in both groups, and the trainings were seen as moderately to very helpful for sport (e.g., being “in the zone,” less anxious, more focused). Although future research is needed with larger sample sizes and interview methods, results suggest that both interventions may be appropriate for sport psychology consultants to utilize and provide further evidence for a train-the-trainer approach for intervention delivery. Lay summary: College student-athletes’ sport anxiety and sport enjoyment improved following psychological skills training (PST) and a mindfulness-based intervention (MSPE), although participants in the mindfulness group also became more satisfied with their sport performance. Athletes in both interventions reported enhanced well-being in both athletics and everyday life, while those in MSPE more often mentioned improvements related to attention/awareness and PST participants more likely to discuss improvements in their mindset during sport. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE Based on both quantitative and qualitative data analysis, results suggest that both psychological skills training (PST) and mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) may positively influence factors related to sport experience and contribute to enhanced well-being, including anxiety reduction, attention, and emotion regulation. Moreover, both interventions included exercises that participants enjoyed, providing support for the acceptability of both programs. Short-term MBIs may contribute to greater satisfaction with sport performance and improve attention (present-moment focus and awareness) in both sport and everyday life, while PST may lead to more improvements in mindset during sport. Those who wish to see changes in these specific areas might want to consider these interventions. Coaches may be able to provide sport psychology services feasibly and effectively for teams within their athletic department or organization, when trained and supervised by an expert professional.

The effects of mindfulness training on mindfulness, anxiety, emotion dysregulation, and performance satisfaction among female student-athletes: The moderating role of age

Research has suggested that mindfulness can help combat stress, increase self-compassion, and improve well-being. Although mindfulness is also beneficial for student-athletes, little is known about how developmental differences due to age may influence intervention efficacy. The present study investigated whether 6-week Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) training had a differential effect on younger (first and second year) compared to older (third and fourth year) college student-athletes’ mindfulness, sport anxiety, emotion dysregulation, and satisfaction with both attention/emotion regulation and physical sport performance. Participants were 39 younger and 21 older female athletes from three teams (lacrosse, field hockey, track & field) at a private university in the United States, ranging in age from 18-22. Multiple 2 × 2 mixed-design ANOVAs revealed significant reductions in sport anxiety as well as significant improvements on self-ratings of satisfaction with both attention/emotion regulation and physical sport performance. Older student-athletes improved more than their younger teammates on sport mindfulness, and independent samples t-tests indicated that older student-athletes reported more frequent mindfulness practice during workouts, team practice, and competitions. Linear regressions found that age predicted reductions in sport anxiety and improvements in dispositional mindful acceptance. Finally, student-athletes perceived MSPE to be moderately to highly successful in promoting change in a variety of performance-related areas such as anxiety reduction, focus, and the ability to let things go. The implications of these results are presented, as well as suggestions for future research on mindfulness mental training with college athletes.

The Effects of Applied and Sport-Specific Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement Training on Mindfulness Skills, Flow, and Emotional Regulation in National Competitive Swimmers

These case studies examined the effects of mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE) programs on competitive swimming performance, flow experience, and emotional regulation. Sixteen national competitive adolescent swimmers were randomly allocated into MSPE (n = 9) and relaxation training (n = 7) groups for 8 weeks. In the second phase of the intervention, the 16 participants were evenly split into an MSPE group for swimming and a control group for 5 weeks. The participants completed measures of trait and state flow, and mindfulness pre- and postintervention. The data analysis revealed that mindfulness had significant effects on both action–awareness merging and clear goals subscales. Further analysis revealed that the MSPE for swimming group significantly improved in terms of presence relative to the control group. In conclusion, general and sport-specific mindfulness interventions can psychologically benefit adolescent competitive swimmers.

Keith A. Kaufman, Carol R. Glass, and Timothy R. Pineau: Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement: Mental Training for Athletes and Coaches. American Psychological Association, Washington, 2018, 304 pp

Keith A. Kaufman, Carol R. Glass, and Timothy R. Pineau: Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement: Mental Training for Athletes and Coaches. American Psychological Association, Washington, 2018, 304 pp

Mindfulness training for a college team: Feasibility, acceptability, and effectiveness from within an athletic department

Mindfulness-based interventions for athletes—including Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE)—have demonstrated promising results. While initial studies of MSPE have found improvements in many areas of athlete functioning (e.g. flow, anxiety, sport performance), questions regarding the feasibility, acceptability, and effectiveness of the protocol when implemented in real-world settings remain. The present pilot study was the first in which a college coach was supervised in using the MSPE protocol to learn mindfulness and develop a consistent practice, and later delivered a 6-week MSPE intervention to all 30 athletes on a Division III NCAA women’s lacrosse team. With a 100% completion rate, players rated the program as highly successful, engaged in mindfulness practice outside of weekly sessions, and strongly recommended MSPE training for other athletes; qualitative data also suggested several perceived benefits. After the intervention, participants showed significant improvements in questionnaire measures of sport anxiety, mindfulness, difficulties in emotion regulation, and sport performance satisfaction, with medium to large effect sizes. Furthermore, improvements in sport mindfulness and flow were associated with several dimensions of lacrosse performance. As many universities lack resources to support sport psychology services for athletes, the present study—with its focus on generalizability and feasibility—suggests that MSPE can be delivered by a trained coach to potentially benefit athletes’ well-being and performance satisfaction. Ultimately, this “train-the-trainer” model could create a foundation for sustainable integration of mindfulness and/or mental training in general into college athletic departments. Lay summary: The feasibility and success of a mindfulness intervention with a collegiate women’s lacrosse team, when led by a coach trained in mindfulness rather than a professional clinician, sport psychologist, or mindfulness expert, suggests that this “train-the-trainer” model could promote feasible and sustainable integration of mindfulness programs into university athletic departments. Implications for practice In addition to direct delivery of mindfulness training to athletes, sport psychology professionals may be able to affect positive change by offering train-the-trainer services to coaches instead, potentially contributing to the sustainable, long-term integration of mindfulness into university athletic departments. Following supervised mindfulness training and the establishment of their own continuing mindfulness practice, the results of the present study suggest that collegiate coaches can feasibly deliver a mindfulness intervention to an entire team with a high degree of acceptability and athlete engagement. Having coaches trained in mindfulness could impact student-athlete well-being and performance satisfaction, and may be especially beneficial for secondary school or university-level athletic departments that lack the financial resources to employ a sport psychology professional.

The effects of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) training on mindfulness, and flow in national competitive swimmers

There are limited studies examining the effects of a mindfulness intervention for a specific sport population group. The aim of this applied study was to investigate the effects of a mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE) program on the mindfulness and flow of adolescent swimmers. Sixteen competitive adolescent swimmers were split into MSPE (n = 9) and relaxation training (RT) (n = 7) groups for eight weeks. Participants completed measures of trait and state flow mindfulness pre and post intervention. Paired t test results revealed that the MSPE group improved trait flow characteristics and global trait flow. ANCOVA analysis also revealed significantly higher effects on global trait flow and the action-awareness merging and clear goals subscales for the MSPE group compared to the RT group. These results suggested that sport orientated mindfulness interventions can psychologically benefit competitive youth swimmers. The study indicates that further research could consider applied designs to investigate in more detail the experiences this population has with specific mindfulness exercises.

Mindfulness in Sport: An Intervention for a Choking-Susceptible Athlete

Although antecedents of choking under pressure have been studied, prevention efforts have been somewhat inconsistent. Current choking-susceptibility criteria include trait anxiety (TA), self-consciousness (SC), and coping style. In the present case study, a college track-and-field athlete was self-identified as choking susceptible (CS), and a sport-specific mindfulness intervention to reduce levels of TA, SC, and alter coping to reduce choking susceptibility was implemented. The athlete identified as CS completed the 6-wk Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) program. Trait and state mindfulness were assessed throughout the program, with a follow-up 6 wk postintervention to gain further insight into the continuing effects of the mindfulness training. Visual analysis and quantitative and qualitative data demonstrated increases in mindfulness levels and changes in TA, SC, and coping, resulting in the participant’s failing to meet the choking-susceptibility criteria postintervention, indicating a reduced likelihood of choking in future performances. Enhanced mindfulness levels promoted greater awareness and acceptance, which may help counter the negative effects of stressful sport performances.

Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement: Randomized Controlled Trial of a Mental Training Program With Collegiate Athletes

College is a stressful time for many students, including student-athletes, who may benefit from mindfulness interventions focusing on present-moment awareness and nonjudgmental acceptance. Mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE) has shown promise in previous open trials for promoting both athlete well-being and psychological factors related to sport performance, and this first randomized controlled trial of MSPE was conducted with mixed-sport groups of 52 NCAA Division III student-athletes. Each of the six sessions included educational, discussion-based, experiential, and home practice components, with meditation exercises progressing from sedentary mindfulness to mindfulness in motion. Whereas wait-list controls showed significant increases in depressive symptoms, those who received MSPE evidenced non-significant reductions in depressive symptoms over the course of treatment. Furthermore, once controls had also received MSPE, treatment completers (the 41% who attended at least five of six MSPE sessions) demonstrated significant increases in flow, trait mindfulness, satisfaction with life, and self-rated sport performance, along with reductions in worry, with medium to large effect sizes. There were no significant changes for treatment completers from post-treatment to 6-month follow-up, suggesting that improvements were maintained over time.

Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement: Mental Training for Athletes and Coaches

Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement: Mental Training for Athletes and Coaches

From losing record to championship season: A case study of mindful sport performance enhancement

Mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE) is one of the leading mindfulness-based mental training programs for athletes and coaches. Following a brief introduction to the structure and spirit of MSPE, a detailed case study of work with a Division III women’s lacrosse team over a 2+ year period is presented, highlighting the adaptability of MSPE when working within collegiate settings. In addition to discussing how the program was adapted and implemented, ethical considerations, the quantitative and qualitative impact of the program, and guidelines for MSPE best practices when working with collegiate athletes and coaches are presented.

Mindfulness training enhances flow state and mental health among baseball players in Taiwan.

ObjectiveTo examine the effect of mindfulness-based training on performance and mental health among a group of elite athletes.MethodsThis study aimed to evaluate the effect of mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE) on mental health, flow state, and competitive state anxiety using a 4-week workshop. We recruited an amateur baseball team (N=21) in Taiwan, and collected information by self-reported questionnaires administered before, immediately after, and at a 4-week follow-up. The primary outcome was to evaluate sports performance by flow state and competitive state anxiety, which included self-confidence, somatic anxiety, and cognitive anxiety. The secondary outcome was to explore whether MSPE intervention can improve anxiety, depression, sleep disturbance, and eating disorders.ResultAfter the workshop and follow-up 1 month later, we found improvements in flow state (P=0.001; P=0.045), cognitive anxiety in competitive anxiety (P=0.056; P=0.008), global eating disorder (P=0.009; P<0.001), marked shape concern (P=0.005; P<0.001), and weight concern (P=0.007; P<0.001). Scores of sleep disturbance (P=0.047) showed significant improvement at follow-up. We also found significant association between flow state and mindfulness ability (P<0.001).ConclusionThis is the first mindfulness intervention to enhance athletes’ performance in Taiwan, and also the first application of MSPE for team sports. Our study results suggested that mindfulness ability is associated with flow state, and that MSPE is a promising training program for strengthening flow state and mental health.

Collegiate Athletes' Expectations and Experiences with Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement.

Although mindfulness training for athletes is an area of increasing interest, few studies have focused on the qualitative experiences of athletes in such programs. Prior to beginning six sessions of mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE) training, 45 mixed-sport collegiate athletes reported what they hoped and expected to get from the training, and responded afterward to open-ended questions about their experiences. Participants' responses were coded for themes with high inter-rater reliability. Athletes initially hoped to gain psychological benefits in both sport and everyday life, such as relaxation and less stress or anxiety, better emotion regulation, mental toughness, and self-awareness, as well as sport performance improvement. Overall, they found MSPE to be a positive experience and reported many of the same benefits that they expected. Participants also provided constructive feedback and recommendations for future MSPE training. Finally, there was evidence to suggest that athletes' expectations predicted similar improvements in outcome measures.

Mindfulness y rendimiento deportivo

Resumen: La inclusión del mindfulness en el deporte es un campo reciente. Mientras que la psicología del deporte ha dependido principalmente de la “segunda ola” de intervenciones cognitivo-conductuales durante las últimas cuatro décadas, una nueva aproximación que incluye al mindfulness se ha desarrollado recientemente: la “tercera ola”. Esta nueva aproximación asume la idea de que el rendimiento es un estado que no se basa en el auto-control o cambio del comportamiento, sino que es un estado que emerge del reconcomiendo y aceptación de los pensamientos, emociones y sensaciones corporales. La práctica del mindfulness permite aprender a observar y aceptar los pensamientos, emociones y sensaciones corporales sin intentar eliminarlos o modificarlos. Este trabajo revisa los dos principales programas de mindfulness para el rendimiento deportivo, ambos de la “tercera ola”: el Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) y el Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC). Mindfulness and sport performance Abstract: Mindfulness in sports is a recent field. While sport psychology relied mainly on “second wave” cognitive-behavioural interventions for the last four decades, a new approach has recently been developed in sport psychology including mindfulness: a “third wave” approach. This new approach assumes that ideal performance is a state that is not based on self-control or change in behaviour, but rather a state that arises from recognition and acceptance of thoughts, emotions and bodily sensations. Practicing mindfulness allows learns to observe and accept the thoughts, emotions, and body sensations, without making any attempt to eliminate or modify them. This paper reviews the main programs of mindfulness in sport performance both from the “third wave”: Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) and Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC).

One Year Follow-Up of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) With Archers, Golfers, and Runners

The purpose of the present investigation was to evaluate the long-term effects of mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE), a program designed to improve athletic performance and psychological aspects of sport. One-year follow-up assessments were conducted on archers, golfers, and long-distance runners (N = 25) who attended Kaufman, Glass, and Arnkoff’s (2009) and De Petrillo, Kaufman, Glass, and Arnkoff’s (2009) MSPE workshops. Across the athlete groups, participants reported significant increases in the ability to act with awareness (an aspect of trait mindfulness) and overall trait mindfulness from pretest to follow-up, along with significant decreases in task-related worries and task-irrelevant thoughts (both aspects of cognitive interference during sport). The long-distance runners exhibited significant improvement in their mile times from pretest to follow-up, with significant correlations between change in runners’ performance and trait variables. Results suggest that MSPE is a promising intervention associated with long-term changes in trait variables that may contribute to optimal athletic performance.

Evaluation of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE): A New Approach to Promote Flow in Athletes

The construct of mindfulness appears to be compatible with theories of flow and peak performance in sport. The present study assessed how Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE), a new 4-week program, affected flow states, performance, and psychological characteristics of 11 archers and 21 golfers from the community. Participants completed trait measures of anxiety, perfectionism, thought disruption, confidence, mindfulness, and flow. They additionally provided data on their performances and state levels of mindfulness and flow. Analyses revealed that some significant changes in dimensions of the trait variables occurred during the training. Levels of state flow attained by the athletes also increased between the first and final sessions. The findings suggest that MSPE is a promising intervention to enhance flow, mindfulness, and aspects of sport confidence. An expanded workshop to allot more time for mindfulness practice is recommended for future studies.

Mindfulness for Long-Distance Runners: An Open Trial Using Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE)

The present study sought to determine the effects of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) on runners. Participants were 25 recreational long-distance runners openly assigned to either the 4-week intervention or to a waiting-list control group, which later received the same program. Results indicate that the MSPE group showed significantly more improvement in organizational demands (an aspect of perfectionism) compared with controls. Analyses of pre- to postworkshop change found a significant increase in state mindfulness and trait awareness and decreases in sport-related worries, personal standards perfectionism, and parental criticism. No improvements in actual running performance were found. Regression analyses revealed that higher ratings of expectations and credibility of the workshop were associated with lower postworkshop perfectionism, more years running predicted higher ratings of perfectionism, and more life stressors predicted lower levels of worry. Findings suggest that MSPE may be a useful mental training intervention for improving mindfulness, sport-anxiety related worry, and aspects of perfectionism in long-distance runners.