Frequency Of Mind Wandering Research Articles

Attentional mediators of the effect of interest on comprehension

BackgroundWhile text reading is still a preferred form of learning, topic interest can be considered an important predictor of reading comprehension. However, the nature of the relationship between interest and comprehension is not yet fully understood. AimsThe present study investigates whether topic interest is related to comprehension when measured in advance and whether two indicators of attention (i.e., mind wandering and cognitive coupling) mediate this relation. SampleParticipants were 238 university students. MethodsParticipants rated their interest in three different topics. One week later, they read one text on each of these topics. The texts’ levels of difficulty were manipulated to change during reading. Measured variables during reading were the individual adaptation of the reading speed to the text difficulty (cognitive coupling) and the frequency of mind wandering. In addition, comprehension was measured after reading each text. ResultsPreliminary assessed topic interest was found to be indirectly but not directly associated with reading comprehension. Specifically, topic interest negatively predicted mind wandering during reading, while mind wandering was, in turn, negatively associated with reading comprehension. In addition, partial evidence was found for the mediating role of cognitive coupling. ConclusionsThe present study adds to the research by showing that topic interest can predict future mind wandering and one type of cognitive coupling. Because mind wandering was, in turn, negatively related to reading comprehension, the study's findings further suggest that topic interest should be encouraged to minimize harmful mind wandering, promote adaption to text properties, and thus improve comprehension.

Mind wandering is not always harmful in sports: the role of its content.

Mind wandering (MW) among athletes during training and competition can lead to poor performance. However, MW has also been found to have positive effects. This study aims to clarify the causes of the bidirectional (negative and positive) effects of MW in the sports context, specifically focusing on whether these effects are related to the content of MW. A total of 846 Chinese athletes completed the Chinese version of the MW scales. The survey data were tested for common method biases. Subsequently, Pearson correlation analysis and structural equation modeling were performed using SPSS 25.0 and Mplus 7.0. The frequency of MW can positively predict its bidirectional effects. MW content plays an important role in the relationships between MW frequency and its negative and positive effects, but the direction of influence varies depending on the content. MW in sports is not always harmful, and its content plays an important role. These findings suggest that managing MW content may be a promising MW intervention method for improving performance in sports.

Cross-sectional and longitudinal changes in mind-wandering in older adulthood.

Age-related declines in the frequency of mind-wandering are well established. Theories of mind-wandering have attempted to explain why this decline occurs, but no one theory firmly predicts such changes. One problem with these theoretical views, and the studies that have grown out of them, is their reliance on cross-sectional methods, which do not account for within-person changes over time in mind-wandering, and it is well-documented that cross-sectional and longitudinal changes in some cognitive domains do not align. We present a novel analysis of longitudinal change in subjective and objective indicators of mind-wandering during a sustained attention task. Cognitively normal adults (N = 277, age range 42-94) completed a sustained attention task with thought probes to measure mind-wandering repeatedly over several years. Linear mixed effect models revealed baseline differences in subjective mind-wandering reports among middle-aged and older adults. However, longitudinally, middle-aged participants showed a significant increase in subjective mind-wandering, whereas older participants showed no change. Changes in mind-wandering could not be explained by attentional control ability or contemporaneous estimates of interest and perceived difficulty, but they were explained by baseline levels of conscientiousness. Objective measures of mind-wandering did not show these same patterns and were largely only associated with participants perceived difficulty. Our results build on previous cross-sectional research and suggest that incorporating longitudinal analyses into theories of ageing and mind-wandering and mind-wandering more broadly is important for refining these theories. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Association Between E-Cigarettes, Cognition and Mood in Adolescents

Objective Research has indicated potentially neutral or even positive cognitive effects of e-cigarette usage in adults, but whether these findings extend to adolescents remains uncertain. This study aimed to examine the interplay between e-cigarette use, mind wandering and self-efficacy, and mood. Method The responses of 432 adolescents aged 11-18 years from an online survey were analyzed. Among them, 88 adolescents had used e-cigarettes. Results Adolescents who have used e-cigarettes reported poorer academic self-efficacy, t (430) = 3.26, 95% CI [1.12, 4.51], p < 0.001; greater mind-wandering tendencies t(430) = −3.38, 95% CI [-4.14, −1.10], p < 0.001; and greater severity of depression, t(430) = −3.38, p < 0.001, anxiety t(430) = −2.67, p = 0.01, and stress t(430) = −3.32, p < .001. Increased frequency of e-cigarette use was also associated with attitudes toward e-cigarette use, r (86) = 0.31, p = 0.003 and lower academic self-efficacy, r (86) = −0.27, p = .010. However, there was no significant correlation between frequency of use and mind-wandering. Further network analysis suggested negative relationships between frequency of e-cigarette use, academic self-efficacy and mind-wandering. Conclusion Our findings suggest a potential adverse impact of e-cigarette use on mind-wandering and academic confidence among adolescents. However, the direct or indirect relationship between e-cigarette use and these effects could not be definitively determined due to the cross-sectional survey design employed in our study. Nonetheless, our findings underscore the importance of considering developmental differences and the unique vulnerabilities of adolescents when assessing the impact of e-cigarette use.

The Effects of Posture on Mind Wandering.

Using two executive tasks, we explored how body posture influences mind wandering, a universal internally self-generated activity. Specifically, participants were instructed to perform the Sustained Attention Response Task (SART) and the Flanker task under three postural conditions: lying supine, sitting, and standing upright. These tasks reflect the proactive and reactive modes of executive control, respectively. To measure the frequency of mind wandering, we employed the probe-caught technique, presenting prompts at irregular intervals. The results indicate that, compared to standing and sitting positions, lying supine significantly increased mind wandering, while posture had no effect on either measure of executive control. We suggest that changes in posture alter cognitive activity related to self-generated thoughts and external tasks, whereas the relationship between mind wandering and executive control requires further research.

Big Five personality and mind wandering in athletes: mediating role of trait anxiety.

Mind wandering is a common phenomenon among athletes during training and competition, and can lead to poor performance. We attempt to clarify which personality type is more prone to mind wandering and the role of trait anxiety between them. Six hundred and eighty-one athletes participated in this cross sectional study. Participants completed the Athlete Mind Wandering Scale, The Chinese adjectives scale of Big-Five factor personality short scale version and Pre-Competition Emotion Scale-Trait questionnaires. The survey data was tested for common method biases, Pearson correlation analysis, and structural equation model by SPSS 25.0 and Mplus 7.0. Common method biases can be accepted in this study. (1) Athletes' neuroticism was significantly and positively correlated with trait anxiety and mind wandering, respectively, athletes' extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness were significantly and negatively correlated with trait anxiety and mind wandering respectively; the athletes' trait anxiety was significantly and positively correlated with mind wandering; (2) By constructing mediating models, the direct effects of athletes' extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness on mind wandering were insignificant. The mediating effect of athletes' trait anxiety between the five personalities and mind wandering was significant. Trait anxiety in athletes plays a fully mediating role between the relationship of personality and mind wandering. Athletes' extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness can all have an impact on mind wandering through the mediating role of trait anxiety. Athletes can use the mediating role of trait anxiety to intervene the frequency of mind wandering.

Listen up, kids! How mind wandering affects immediate and delayed memory in children.

Mind wandering occurs when attention becomes disengaged from the here-and-now and directed toward internally generated thoughts; this is often associated with poorer performance on educationally significant tasks. In this study, 8- to 9-year-old children (N = 60) listened to audio stories embedded with intermittent thought probes that were used to determine if participants' thoughts were on or off task. The key objective was to explore the impact of probe-caught mind wandering on both immediate and delayed memory retention. Children reported being off task approximately 24% of the time. Most inattention episodes were classified as task-unrelated thoughts (i.e., 'pure' instances of mind wandering, 9%) or attentional failures due to distractions (9%). Higher frequency of mind wandering was strongly associated with poorer memory recall, and task-unrelated thoughts strongly predicted how well children could recall components of the audio story both immediately after the task and after a 1-week delay. This study is the first to demonstrate the impact of mind wandering on delayed memory retention in children. Results suggest that exploring mind wandering in the foundational years of schooling could provide the necessary empirical foundation for the development of practical interventions geared toward detecting and refocusing lapses of attention in educational contexts.

Mind-Wandering and Its Relationship With Psychological Wellbeing and Obsessive-Compulsive Symptomatology in the Context of Covid-19.

Mind-wandering (MW) as a research topic has received considerable attention over the last several decades. The recent differentiation between spontaneous and deliberate MW has suggested a particular effect of the former on psychopathology; in that increased spontaneous MW may precede mental illness. The present study sought to explore MW as a potential contributing factor to poor mental health in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic. More specifically, we sought to determine firstly, whether the effects of MW frequency, type and content on subjective psychological wellbeing was consistent with previous findings after controlling for the impacts of Covid-related stress. Secondly, previous research has demonstrated an effect of both Covid-stress and spontaneous MW on the experience of obsessive-compulsive symptomatology (OCS), and so the present study explored this relationship further by assessing whether Covid-stress mediated the relationship between spontaneous MW and OCS. Participants completed measures of MW, OCS and psychological wellbeing through an online questionnaire. The results indicated that increased spontaneous MW was indicative of both poorer subjective psychological wellbeing and OCS, with Covid-stress partially mediating the relationship between spontaneous MW and OCS. Our findings provide further support for the adverse effect of unintentional MW on psychological wellbeing, as well as for the differentiation between both forms of the cognitive phenomenon. Additionally, they provide an important insight into one of the factors that may have preceded poor mental health among the Irish population during Covid-19. Future research may build upon the present study by exploring similar relationships among clinical populations.

The benefits of mind wandering on a naturalistic prospective memory task

Mind wandering (MW) occurs when our attention spontaneously shifts from the task at hand to inner thoughts. MW is often future-oriented and may help people remember to carry out their planned actions (Prospective Memory, PM). Past-oriented MW might also play a critical role in boosting PM performance. Sixty participants learned 24 PM items and recalled them during an immersive virtual walk in a town. The items were divided into event-based—EB and time-based—TB. During the PM retention phase, participants were randomly assigned to a high or a low cognitive load condition, in order to manipulate MW frequency. Some PM items were encoded before this MW manipulation (pre-PM) and some during the virtual walk (post-PM). A high MW frequency was linked with better global PM performances. Spontaneous past-oriented MW predicted better pre-EB retrospective PM retrieval, while spontaneous future-oriented MW predicted better Pre-EB prospective PM retrieval. Voluntary future-oriented MW predicted better post-EB retrospective retrieval. We highlighted, for the first time, a differential impact of spontaneous MW content depending on the PM component (retrospective or prospective). Past‐oriented MW is crucial for (re)consolidating PM intentions, and episodic future thinking MW for the execution of PM intentions. We discuss the twofold functional role of MW, namely, to consolidate an already programmed intention and to plan future actions.

Collaborative Retrieval Practice Reduces Mind-Wandering During Learning.

Research has shown engaging in retrieval practice can reduce the frequency of mind-wandering. However, no prior research has examined how engaging in collaborative (as compared to individual) retrieval practice impacts mind-wandering during learning. In the current experiment, participants were asked to study a list of words, followed by retrieval practice that either occurred collaboratively (as a dyad) or individually. During retrieval practice, participants provided self-reports as to whether they were on task or off task. Following retrieval practice, all participants completed an individual final test. Of greatest interest, the results showed that engaging in collaborative retrieval practice decreased the frequency of mind-wandering during learning. In addition, and consistent with prior collaborative learning research, collaborative inhibition during practice and postcollaborative benefits on the final test were observed. The current results provide the first demonstration of an additional benefit to using collaborative retrieval practice: This technique reduces the frequency of mind-wandering.

The impact of mood-induction on maladaptive thinking in the vulnerability for depression

Background and objectivesMind-wandering, and specifically the frequency and content of mind-wandering, plays an important role in the psychological well-being of individuals. Repetitive negative thinking has been associated with a high risk to develop and maintain Major Depressive Disorder. We here combined paradigms and techniques from cognitive sciences and experimental clinical psychology to study the transdiagnostic psychiatric phenomenon of repetitive negative thinking. This allowed us to investigate the adjustability of the content and characteristics of mind-wandering in individuals varying in their susceptibility to negative affect. MethodsParticipants high (n = 42) or low (n = 40) on their vulnerability for negative affect and depression performed a Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) after a single session of positive fantasizing and a single session of stress induction in a cross-over design. Affective states were measured before and after the interventions. ResultsAfter stress, negative affect increased, while after fantasizing both positive affect increased and negative affect decreased. Thoughts were less off-task, past-related and negative after fantasizing compared to after stress. Individuals more susceptible to negative affect showed more off-task thinking after stress than after fantasizing compared to individuals low on this. LimitationsIn this cross-over design, no baseline measurement was included, limiting comparison to ‘uninduced’ mind-wandering. Inclusion of self-related concerns in the SART could have led to negative priming. ConclusionsStress-induced negative thinking underlying vulnerability for depression could be partially countered by fantasizing in a non-clinical sample, which may inform the development of treatments for depression and other disorders characterized by maladaptive thinking.

Mindfulness for violinists

An overabundance of mental distractions may prevent musicians’ minds from being in the moment while practicing. The present mixed-methods study examined the effects of three newly designed mindfulness meditations on six conservatory violinists’ levels of dispositional mindfulness, mind-wandering and respective variables. Thought probes were used before and after the intervention to examine frequency of mind-wandering and contextual variables (task difficulty, fatigue and stress, and motivation) during two hours of participants’ instrumental practice (one of technical work another of a new piece in their repertoire). FFQM (Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire) and MfM (Mindfulness for Musicians) questionnaires were used to measure mindfulness levels before and after the intervention. Interviews and meditation logs were used as qualitative data. Results indicated that all participants became more mindful at the end of the meditation week for all mindfulness’ facets for the FFQM and MfM questionnaires. However, the improvements were particularly noticeable for the “Acting with Awareness” and “Non-Judge” facets for the FFQM and for “Describe” in the MfM. Results showed opposing trends in mind-wandering levels throughout the intervention. That is, some participants showed higher mind-wandering at the post-intervention and others lower. However, contextual variables such as fatigue, motivation or worry, may have also affected how much participants wandered while practicing (e.g. some of them showed more rumination when being more worried and having slept less). Overall, results from the experiment evidenced the importance of including mindfulness in violinists’ daily practice as a useful routine to become more aware and less distracted.

Mind-wandering in Larks and Owls: The Effects of Chronotype and Time of Day on the Frequency of Task-unrelated Thoughts

People differ in their optimal time of day to perform a cognitive task: Morning people (“larks”) perform better in the morning compared to the evening, and the reversed is true for evening people (“owls”). This synchrony effect has been observed for executive functions, such as inhibitory control. For example, participants performing the Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) make more commission errors at their non-optimal time of day. Because mind-wandering (MW) has been related to the executive system, we here investigated a synchrony effect in the frequency of MW. After determining the participants’ chronotype (n = 130), they completed an online version of the SART twice, once in the morning and once in the evening. MW was subjectively measured using a probe-caught method. Results showed that “larks” mind-wandered more often in the evening than the morning session. In contrast, “owls” showed the opposite profile. Objective markers for MW (i.e., accuracy and reaction time coefficient of variance) confirmed these results. Furthermore, in line with earlier suggestions, the frequency of MW was also directly related to the number of hours slept the night before the experiment, and an overall higher frequency of MW was observed for evening chronotypes. The results of this study provide clear evidence for the relation between sleep-related factors and MW, and raises the importance of accounting for chronotype differences when scheduling work and academic activities.

Development and validation of children's mind wandering scales.

Mind wandering is generally considered an endogenous mental state that arises spontaneously, which is one of the most common experiences of consciousness and typically occurs at a significant cost to mental health and behavioral performance. Previous studies have shown that mind wandering appears to be a stable trait and can be assessed reliably in adults. Surprisingly little, however, is known about how to measure the frequency of mind wandering in children, given that children can accurately introspect their experiences. The present studies aimed to develop the Frequency of Children's Mind Wandering Scale (CMWS-F) and the Context of Children's Mind Wandering Scale (CMWS-C) to assess the frequency of mind wandering and contexts in which mind wandering occurs for children aged 8 to 11 years. The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were used to develop the CMWS-F and CMWS-C. To further assess the validity of the scales, we compared the scores in CMWS-F/CMWS-C and the frequencies of probe-caught mind wandering in the typical tasks. In study 1a, the EFA (n = 292) and CFA (n = 346) showed that attentional failure and spontaneous thinking were the two main dimensions of CMWS-F. In study 1b, contexts about mind wandering in children could be divided into high-demand and low-demand contexts using EFA (n = 258) and CFA (n = 347). Study 2 showed moderate positive correlations between the frequencies of probe-caught mind wandering in the tasks and the scores in the scales. The results showed that scores on the two scales could predict the performance on the experimental tasks and further demonstrated empirical validity of the CMWS-F and CMWS-C scales. Taken together, the results of the current studies provided preliminary evidence for the validity and reliability of CMWS-F and CMWS-C in children, which can be used as a reference to balance its downsides and productive aspects of mind wandering.

Zooming in or zoning out: examining undergraduate learning experiences with zoom and the role of mind-wandering

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a systematic change in course modalities due to the nationwide suspension of in-person instruction, resulting in the transition to emergency remote distance learning via Zoom. This transition certainly facilitated affordances of flexibility and continuity, but with it brought issues of unfamiliarity, lack of confidence, anxiety, distractions, and validity from both the instructors and the student perspectives. This in situ study aimed to better understand the students' learning experiences with Zoom by assessing the social, cognitive, and behavioral factors influencing learner's mind-wandering and its effect on online engagement. Undergraduate students from 14 classes across two research institutions in California (N = 633) were recruited to participate in an online survey while distance learning through a pandemic. Structural equation modeling was used to conduct a path analysis to explain the factors impacting students' online engagement mediated by students' frequency to mind-wander. Study findings revealed that (1) self-efficacy and trait anxiety had significant direct effects on students' mind-wandering; (2) self-efficacy, trait anxiety, task-value beliefs, and mind-wandering had significant direct effects on students' online engagement; and finally (3) the frequency of students' mind-wandering partially mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and engagement and between trait anxiety and engagement. Identifying these structural relationships further confirmed our hypotheses on sources contributing to students' mind-wandering while learning remotely, provided insights into potential mechanisms underpinning students' online engagement, and suggests practical pedagogical learning experience design recommendations for instructors to immediately implement while teaching and learning with Zoom..

Spontaneous Thought Characteristics are Differentially Related to Heightened Negative Affect vs. Blunted Positive Affect in Adolescents: An Experience Sampling Study.

Mind-wandering has been linked to negative affect and depressive symptoms in adolescents. However, mind-wandering is an extremely broad and heterogenous cognitive construct. Some features of spontaneous thought may be related to increased negative affect, whereas others may improve affect, or have no emotional influence. We used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to investigate the characteristics of spontaneous thoughts in adolescents and their differential relations with moment-to-moment affect. One-hundred and sixteen adolescents (ages 13-18; Typical Mood (TM) = 58; Low Mood (LM) = 58) completed 5 days (2-3 times/day) of EMA (total 1,037 surveys) assessing current positive and negative affect (PA and NA) and dimensions of spontaneous thought. Multilevel models tested the relation between thought characteristics and affect. Relative to the TM group, LM adolescents had a higher frequency of mind-wandering (38% vs. 56%) and negatively-valanced thoughts during episodes of mind-wandering (21% vs. 37%). Negatively-valenced, self-referential and past-oriented thoughts were each associated with higher NA, even when controlling for plausible confounds (e.g., engagement in an unpleasant activity or social interaction, depressive symptom severity). In contrast, task-focused and positively-valenced thoughts were uniquely linked to higher PA. Characteristics of spontaneous thought - including temporal orientation, self-referential quality, and task-relatedness - were differentially related to NA vs. PA in adolescents. If replicated, these findings could inform more nuanced assessments of and targeted interventions for specific dimensions of mind-wandering contributing to high NA vs. blunted PA in teens.

Benefits of Mind Wandering for Learning in School Through Its Positive Effects on Creativity

There is broad agreement among researchers to view mind wandering as an obstacle to learning because it draws attention away from learning tasks. Accordingly, empirical findings revealed negative correlations between the frequency of mind wandering during learning and various kinds of learning outcomes (e.g., text retention). However, a few studies have indicated positive effects of mind wandering on creativity in real-world learning environments. The present article reviews these studies and highlights potential benefits of mind wandering for learning mediated through creative processes. Furthermore, we propose various ways to promote useful mind wandering and, at the same time, minimize its negative impact on learning.

The relationship between schizotypal traits and satisfaction with life among Chinese young adults: The mediating effect of trait anxiety and mind wandering

Schizotypal traits have been found to be negatively associated with satisfaction with life but the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. This study investigated the association between schizotypal traits and satisfaction with life and explored the mediating role of trait anxiety and mind wandering in the relationship between those two variables in a sample of Chinese young adults. One hundred and two individuals with high schizotypal traits and 104 individuals with low schizotypal traits were screened using the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire. They completed a series of questionnaires including the Satisfaction with Life Scale, Trait Anxiety Inventory, and Mind Wandering Questionnaire. Results showed that: First, the high schizotypal trait group showed lower satisfaction with life, and higher trait anxiety and mind wandering frequency than the low schizotypal trait group. Second, the high schizotypal trait group, trait anxiety, and mind wandering negatively predicted satisfaction with life. Third, mediation analyses showed that all indirect effect paths in the mediation model were significant, that is, trait anxiety and mind wandering alone and together mediated the relationship between schizotypal trait group and satisfaction with life. In conclusion, high schizotypal trait is a risk factor for low satisfaction with life. The association between schizotypal traits and satisfaction with life was mediated by the combination of trait anxiety and mind wandering. This study has implications for improving life satisfaction in individuals with high schizotypal traits.

The link between mind wandering and learning in children

Mind wandering is a common everyday experience during which attention shifts from the here and now; in adults and adolescents, it is associated with poorer performance in educationally significant tasks. This study is the first to directly assess the impact of mind wandering on memory retention in children before the adolescent period. A sample of 97 children aged 6–11 years engaged in a listening activity, and the frequency of mind wandering was measured using intermittent thought probes. Participants then completed a memory retention test. Children reported mind wandering on ∼25% of the thought probes, and frequency did not increase with age. When controlling for the impact of age and vocabulary skills, mind wandering frequency accounted for a large and significant portion of variance in memory scores. Mind wandering frequency also mediated the relation between children’s ratings of topic interest and memory scores. The results indicate that mind wandering can be reliably measured in children and is of educational significance.

The effect of context on mind-wandering in younger and older adults

Older adults report less mind-wandering (MW) during tasks of sustained attention than younger adults. The control failure × current concerns account argues that this is due to age differences in how contexts cue personally relevant task-unrelated thoughts. For older adults, the university laboratory contains few reminders of their current concerns and unfinished goals. For younger adults, however, the university laboratory is more directly tied to their current concerns. Therefore, if the context for triggering current concerns is the critical difference between younger and older adults’ reported MW frequencies, then testing the two groups in contexts that equate the salience of self-relevant cues (i.e., their homes) should result in an increase in older but not younger adults’ MW rates. The present study directly compared rates of MW and involuntary autobiographical memories (IAMs) in the home versus in the lab for younger and older adults using a within-subjects manipulation of context. Inconsistent with the control failure × current concerns account, no significant reduction in the age-gap in MW was found. Suggesting a lack of cues rather than an abundance of cues elicits MW, participants in both age groups reported more MW in the lab than at home. The number of IAMs recalled did not differ across contexts but was lower in older than younger adults. These findings suggest that a cognitive rather than an environmental mechanism may be behind the reduction in spontaneous cognition in aging.