Millimetre Fluxes Research Articles

Toward a population synthesis of disks and planets

Aims. We want to find the distribution of initial conditions that best reproduces disc observations at the population level. Methods. We first ran a parameter study using a 1D model that includes the viscous evolution of a gas disc, dust, and pebbles, coupled with an emission model to compute the millimetre flux observable with ALMA. This was used to train a machine learning surrogate model that can compute the relevant quantity for comparison with observations in seconds. This surrogate model was used to perform parameter studies and synthetic disc populations. Results. Performing a parameter study, we find that internal photoevaporation leads to a lower dependency of disc lifetime on stellar mass than external photoevaporation. This dependence should be investigated in the future. Performing population synthesis, we find that under the combined losses of internal and external photoevaporation, discs are too short lived. Conclusions. To match observational constraints, future models of disc evolution need to include one or a combination of the following processes: infall of material to replenish the discs, shielding of the disc from internal photoevaporation due to magnetically driven disc winds, and extinction of external high-energy radiation. Nevertheless, disc properties in low-external-photoevaporation regions can be reproduced by having more massive and compact discs. Here, the optimum values of the α viscosity parameter lie between 3 × 10−4 and 10−3 and with internal photoevaporation being the main mode of disc dispersal.

The Ophiuchus DIsc Survey Employing ALMA (ODISEA) – II. The effect of stellar multiplicity on disc properties

ABSTRACT We present adaptive optics (AO) near-infrared (NIR) observations using VLT/NACO and Keck/NIRC2 of Ophiuchus DIsc Survey Employing ALMA (ODISEA) targets. ODISEA is an ALMA survey of the entire population of circumstellar discs in the Ophiuchus molecular cloud. From the whole sample of ODISEA, we select all the discs that are not already observed in the NIR with AO and that are observable with NACO or NIRC2. The NIR-ODISEA survey consists of 147 stars observed in NIR AO imaging for the first time, as well as revisiting almost all the binary systems of Ophiuchus present in the literature (20 out of 21). In total, we detect 20 new binary systems and one triple system. For each of them, we calculate the projected separation and position angle of the companion, as well as their NIR and millimetre flux ratios. From the NIR contrast, we derived the masses of the secondaries, finding that nine of them are in the substellar regime (30–50 MJup ). Discs in multiple systems reach a maximum total dust mass of ∼50 M⊕, while discs in single stars can reach a dust mass of 200 M⊕. Discs with masses above 10 M⊕ are found only around binaries with projected separations larger than ∼110 au. The maximum disc size is also larger around single star than binaries. However, since most discs in Ophiuchus are very small and low-mass, the effect of visual binaries is relatively weak in the general disc population.

On the dust temperatures of high-redshift galaxies

Abstract Dust temperature is an important property of the interstellar medium (ISM) of galaxies. It is required when converting (sub)millimetre broad-band flux to total infrared luminosity (LIR), and hence star formation rate, in high-redshift galaxies. However, different definitions of dust temperatures have been used in the literature, leading to different physical interpretations of how ISM conditions change with, e.g. redshift and star formation rate. In this paper, we analyse the dust temperatures of massive ($M_{\rm star} \gt 10^{10}\, \mathrm{M}_{\odot }$) $z$ = 2–6 galaxies with the help of high-resolution cosmological simulations from the Feedback in Realistic Environments (fire) project. At $z$ ∼ 2, our simulations successfully predict dust temperatures in good agreement with observations. We find that dust temperatures based on the peak emission wavelength increase with redshift, in line with the higher star formation activity at higher redshift, and are strongly correlated with the specific star formation rate. In contrast, the mass-weighted dust temperature, which is required to accurately estimate the total dust mass, does not strongly evolve with redshift over $z$ = 2–6 at fixed IR luminosity but is tightly correlated with LIR at fixed $z$. We also analyse an ‘equivalent’ dust temperature for converting (sub)millimetre flux density to total IR luminosity, and provide a fitting formula as a function of redshift and dust-to-metal ratio. We find that galaxies of higher equivalent (or higher peak) dust temperature (‘warmer dust’) do not necessarily have higher mass-weighted temperatures. A ‘two-phase’ picture for interstellar dust can explain the different scaling relations of the various dust temperatures.

Variable millimetre radiation from the colliding-wind binary Cygnus OB2 #8A

In the colliding-wind region of massive binaries, non-thermal radio emission occurs. This non-thermal radio emission (due to synchrotron radiation) has so far been observed at centimetre wavelengths. At millimetre wavelengths, the stellar winds and the colliding-wind region emit more thermal free-free radiation, and it is expected that any non-thermal contribution will be difficult or impossible to detect. We aim to determine if the material in the colliding-wind region contributes substantially to the observed millimetre fluxes of a colliding-wind binary. We also try to distinguish the synchrotron emission from the free-free emission. We monitored the massive binary Cyg OB2 #8A at 3 mm with the NOrthern Extended Millimeter Array (NOEMA) interferometer of the Institut de Radioastronomie Millimetrique (IRAM). The data were collected in 14 separate observing runs (in 2014 and 2016), and provide good coverage of the orbital period. The observed millimetre fluxes range between 1.1 and 2.3 mJy, and show phase-locked variability, clearly indicating that a large part of the emission is due to the colliding-wind region. A simple synchrotron model gives fluxes with the correct order of magnitude, but with a maximum that is phase-shifted with respect to the observations. Qualitatively this phase shift can be explained by our neglect of orbital motion on the shape of the colliding-wind region. A model using only free-free emission results in only a slightly worse explanation of the observations. Additionally, on the map of our observations we also detect the O6.5 III star Cyg OB2 #8B, for which we determine a 3 mm flux of 0.21 +- 0.033 mJy. The question of whether synchrotron radiation or free-free emission dominates the millimetre fluxes of Cyg OB2 #8A remains open. More detailed modelling of this system, based on solving the hydrodynamical equations, is required to give a definite answer.

The far-infrared behaviour of Herbig Ae/Be discs:HerschelPACS photometry

Herbig Ae/Be objects are pre-main sequence stars surrounded by gas- and dust-rich circumstellar discs. These objects are in the throes of star and planet formation, and their characterisation informs us of the processes and outcomes of planet formation processes around intermediate mass stars. Here we analyse the spectral energy distributions of disc host stars observed by the Herschel Open Time Key Programme `Gas in Protoplanetary Systems'. We present Herschel/PACS far-infrared imaging observations of 22 Herbig Ae/Bes and 5 debris discs, combined with ancillary photometry spanning ultraviolet to sub-millimetre wavelengths. From these measurements we determine the diagnostics of disc evolution, along with the total excess, in three regimes spanning near-, mid-, and far-infrared wavelengths. Using appropriate statistical tests, these diagnostics are examined for correlations. We find that the far-infrared flux, where the disc becomes optically thin, is correlated with the millimetre flux, which provides a measure of the total dust mass. The ratio of far-infrared to sub-millimetre flux is found to be greater for targets with discs that are brighter at millimetre wavelengths and that have steeper sub-millimetre slopes. Furthermore, discs with flared geometry have, on average, larger excesses than flat geometry discs. Finally, we estimate the extents of these discs (or provide upper limits) from the observations.

Chromospheric thermal continuum millimetre emission from non-dusty K and M red giants

We examine the thermal free-free millimetre fluxes expected from non-dusty and non-pulsating K through mid-M giant stars based on our limited understanding of their inhomogeneous chromospheres. We present a semi-analytic model that provides estimates of the radio fluxes for the mm wavelengths (e.g., CARMA, ALMA, JVLA Q-band) based on knowledge of the effective temperatures, angular diameters and chromospheric Mg II h & k emission fluxes. At 250 GHz, the chromospheric optical depths are expected to be significantly less than unity, which means that fluxes across the mm and sub-mm range will have a contribution from the chromospheric mate- rial that gives rise to the ultraviolet emission spectrum, as well as the cool molecular material known to exist above the photosphere. We predict a lower bound to the inferred brightness temperature of red giants based on heating at the basal-flux limit if the upper chromospheres have filling factor 1. Multi-frequency mm observations should provide important new information on the structuring of the inhomogeneous chromospheres, including the boundary layer, and allow tests of competing theoretical models for atmospheric heating. We comment on the suitability of these stars as mm flux calibrators.

Two populations of transition discs?

Abstract We examine the distribution of transition discs as a function of millimetre (mm) flux. We confirm that as expected in any model in which most primordial discs turn into transition discs and in which mm flux declines with time, transition discs have lower mm fluxes on average than primordial discs. However, we find that the incidence of transition discs does not, as expected, fall monotonically towards large mm fluxes and also investigate the hypothesis that these mm bright transition discs may have a distinct physical origin. We find that mm bright transition discs occupy a separate region of parameter space. Transition discs in the bright mm subsample have systematically higher accretion rates than those in the faint mm subsample, along with being systematically weighted to earlier spectral types.

Earth-based detection of the millimetric thermal emission from the nucleus of comet 8P/Tuttle

Little is known about the physical properties of cometary nuclei. Apart from space mission targets, measuring the thermal emission of a nucleus is one of the few means to derive its size, independently of its albedo, and to constrain some of its thermal properties. This emission is difficult to detect from Earth but space telescopes (Infrared Space Observatory, Spitzer Space Telescope, Herschel Space Observatory) allow reliable measurements in the infrared and the sub-millimetre domains. We aim at better characterizing the thermal properties of the nucleus of comet 8P/Tuttle using multi-wavelentgh space- and ground-based observations, in the visible, infrared, and millimetre range. We used the Plateau de Bure Interferometer to measure the millimetre thermal emission of comet 8P/Tuttle at 240 GHz (1.25 mm) and analysed the observations with the shape model derived from Hubble Space Telescope observations and the nucleus size derived from Spitzer Space Telescope observations. We report on the first detection of the millimetre thermal emission of a cometary nucleus since comet C/1995 O1 Hale-Bopp in 1997. Using the two contact spheres shape model derived from Hubble Space Telescope observations, we constrained the thermal properties of the nucleus. Our millimetre observations are best match with: i) a thermal inertia lower than ~10 J K-1 m-2 s-1/2, ii) an emissivity lower than 0.8, indicating a non-negligible contribution of the colder sub-surface layers to the outcoming millimetre flux.

Evolution of dust temperature of galaxies through cosmic time as seen by Herschel★

We study the dust properties of galaxies in the redshift range 0.1 ≲z≲ 2.8 observed by the Herschel Space Observatory in the field of the Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey-North as part of the PACS Extragalactic Probe (PEP) and Herschel Multi-tiered Extragalactic Survey (HerMES) key programmes. Infrared (IR) luminosity (LIR) and dust temperature (Tdust) of galaxies are derived from the spectral energy distribution fit of the far-IR (FIR) flux densities obtained with the PACS and SPIRE instruments onboard Herschel. As a reference sample, we also obtain IR luminosities and dust temperatures of local galaxies at z < 0.1 using AKARI and IRAS data in the field of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. We compare the LIR–Tdust relation between the two samples and find that the median Tdust of Herschel-selected galaxies at z≳ 0.5 with LIR≳ 5 × 1010 L⊙ appears to be 2–5 K colder than that of AKARI-selected local galaxies with similar luminosities, and the dispersion in Tdust for high-z galaxies increases with LIR due to the existence of cold galaxies that are not seen among local galaxies. We show that this large dispersion of the LIR−Tdust relation can bridge the gap between local star-forming galaxies and high-z submillimetre galaxies (SMGs). We also find that three SMGs with very low Tdust (≲20 K) covered in this study have close neighbouring sources with similar 24-μm brightness, which could lead to an overestimation of FIR/(sub)millimetre fluxes of the SMGs.

The RMS survey

Context. The Red MSX Source (RMS) survey is an ongoing multi-wavelength observational programme designed to return a large, high-resolution mid-infrared colour-selected sample of massive young stellar objects (MYSOs). We have identified ∼2000 MYSO candidates located within our Galaxy by comparing the colours of MSX and 2MASS point sources to those of known MYSOs. The aim of our follow-up observations is to identify other objects with similar colours such as ultra compact (UC) HII regions, evolved stars and planetary nebulae (PNe) and distinguish between genuine MYSOs and nearby low-mass YSOs. Aims. A critical part of our follow-up programme is to conduct 13CO molecular line observations in order to determine kinematic distances to all of our MYSO candidates. These distances will be used in combination with far-IR and (sub)millimetre fluxes to determine bolometric luminosities which will allow us to identify and remove nearby low-mass YSOs. In addition these molecular line observations will help in identifying evolved stars which are weak CO emitters. Methods. We have used the 15 m James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT), the 13.7 m telescope of the Purple Mountain Observatory (PMO), the 20 m Onsala telescope and the 22 m Mopra telescope to conduct molecular line observations towards 508 MYSOs candidates located in the 1st and 2nd Quadrants. These observations have been made at the J = 1−0 (Mopra, Onsala and PMO) and J = 2−1 (JCMT) rotational transition frequency of 13CO molecules and have a spatial resolution of ∼20′′−55′′, a sensitivity of T ∗ A 0.1 K and a velocity resolution of ∼0.2 km s−1. We complement these targeted observations with 13CO spectra extracted from the Galactic Ring Survey (GRS), which have a velocity resolution of ∼0.21 km s−1 and sensitivity T ∗ A 0.13−0.2 K, towards a further 403 RMS sources. Results. In this paper we present the results and analysis of the 13CO spectra obtained towards 911 MYSO candidates. We detect 13CO emission towards 780 RMS sources which corresponds to approximately 84% of those observed. A total of 2595 emission components are detected above 3σ level (typically T ∗ A ≥ 0.3 K), with multiple components being observed towards the majority of these sources – 520 sources (∼56%) – with an average of ∼4 molecular clouds detected along each line of sight. These multiple emission features make it difficult to assign a unique kinematic velocity to many of our sample. We have used archival CS (J = 2−1) and maser velocities to resolve the component multiplicity towards 175 sources (∼20%) and have derived a criterion which is used to identify the most likely component for a further 191 multiple component sources. Combined with the single component detections we have obtained unambiguous kinematic velocities for 638 of the 780 MYSOs candidates towards which CO is detected (∼80% of the detections). The 141 sources for which we have not been able to determine the kinematic velocity will require additional line data. Using the rotation curve of Brand and Blitz (1993) and their radial velocities we calculate kinematic distances for all detected components.

Simulating the emission and outflows from accretion discs

The radio source Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*) is believed to be a hot, inhomogeneous, magnetized plasma flowing near the event horizon of the 3.6 × 106 M⊙ black hole at the galactic centre. At a distance of 8 kpc (≃ 2.5 × 1022 cm) the black hole would be among the largest black holes as judged by angular size. Recent observations are consistent with the idea that the millimetre and sub-millimetre photons are dominated by optically thin, thermal synchrotron emission. Anticipating future Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) observations of Sgr A* at these wavelengths, we present here the first dynamically self-consistent models of millimetre and sub-millimetre emission from Sgr A* based on general relativistic numerical simulations of the accretion flow. Angle-dependent spectra are calculated assuming a thermal distribution of electrons at the baryonic temperature dictated by the simulation and the accretion rate, which acts as a free parameter in our model. The effects of varying model parameters (black hole spin and inclination of the spin to the line of sight) and source variability on the spectrum are shown. We find that the accretion rate value needed to match our calculated millimetre flux to the observed flux is consistent with constraints on the accretion rate inferred from detections of the rotation measure. We also describe the relativistic jet that is launched along the black hole spin axis by the accretion disc and evolves to scales of ∼103GMc−2, where M is the mass of the black hole.

Radio and submillimetre observations of wind structure in ζ Puppis

We present radio and submillimetre observations of the O4I(n)f star zeta Pup, and discuss structure in the outer region of its wind (similar to10-100 R-*). The properties of bremsstrahlung, the dominant emission process at these wavelengths, make it sensitive to structure and allow us to study how the amount of structure changes in the wind by comparing the fluxes at different wavelengths. Possible forms of structure at these distances include Corotating Interaction Regions (CIRs), stochastic clumping, a disk or a polar enhancement. As the CIRs are azimuthally asymmetric, they should result in variability at submillimetre or radio wavelengths. To look for this variability, we acquired 3.6 and 6 cm observations with the Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA), covering about two rotational periods of the star. We supplemented these with archive observations from the NRAO Very Large Array (VLA), which cover a much longer time scale. We did not find variability at more than the +/-20% level. The long integration time does allow an accurate determination of the fluxes at 3.6 and 6 cm. Converting these fluxes into a mass loss rate, we find. (M)over dot = 3.5 x 10(-6) M-circle dot/yr. This value confirms the significant discrepancy with the mass loss rate derived from the Halpha profile, making zeta Pup an exception to the usually good agreement between the Halpha and radio mass loss rates. To study the run of structure as a function of distance, we supplemented the ATCA data by observing zeta Pup at 850 mum with the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT) and at 20 cm with the VLA. A smooth wind model shows that the millimetre fluxes are too high compared to the radio fluxes. While recombination of helium in the outer wind cannot be discounted as an explanation, the wealth of evidence for structure strongly suggests this as the explanation for the discrepancy. Model calculations show that the structure needs to be present in the inner similar to70 R-* of the wind, but that it decays significantly, or maybe even disappears, beyond that radius.

Simultaneous millimetre and radio observations of Cygnus X-3 in a quiescent radio state

Observations of Cygnus X-3 at 2.0 and 1.1 mm with the JCMT, partially simultaneous with radio flux measurements at 2 cm and 18 cm, are presented. These are the first known observations of Cyg X-3 at millimetre wavelengths whilst the source was in a quiet radio state. The observed millimetre fluxes are several times greater than those expected for the synchrotron tail of emission extrapolated from the radio, and the 2-mm flux exceeds that at 1.1 mm, suggesting a peak in the region of a few mm. The observations are interpreted using an extension of the model of Marti, Paredes & Estalella to repeated short injections of relativistic electrons in a region in the Cyg X-3 stellar wind which is optically thin to millimetre-wave photons, but optically thick at centimetre wavelengths. Centimetre-wavelength emission is not observed until the ejecta have travelled further out in the wind. A MERLIN radio map at 18 cm reveals the same elliptical asymmetry in the scattering medium around Cyg X-3 as found by Wilkinson, Narayan & Spencer.

Cold dust around chamaeleon stars

Here we present the results of 1.3 millimetre continuum measurements for intermediatemass stars in the Chamaeleon system of dark clouds. The detected millimetre radiation is most probably thermal emission from cold circumstellar dust grains. The measured millimetre fluxes are combined with infrared observations to model the broad-band spectral energy distribution (SED). In this way the parameters of the emission regions are determined.

Millimetric flux densities as a test of atmospheric turbulence

In this paper it is shown how submillimetre and millimetre flux density measurements of sky fluctuations can be used to infer the characteristics of atmospheric turbulence. Two different approaches have been followed: first, by considering the observed process as due to the atmospheric turbulence, we used the r.m.s. sky fluctuations to derive some physical parametres characterizing the phenomenon; second, by investigating the power spectrum and the autocorrelation function, we derive an empirical model (the AR model) to try to deduce the physical process. In this case, the fitted power spectrum agrees strikingly with that predicted by the theory of a stationary turbulent flow for the atmosphere in the sampled frequency range. This kind of modeling can help to disentangle the atmospheric fluctuations from the extraterrestrial signal in ground-based astrophysical measurements. Measurements of the water vapour content and atmospheric transmission at the Italian Base in Antarctica, where the data have been taken, at the wavelengths of 350 μm, 1 and 2mm are also reported.