Millennium BP Research Articles

MicroCT analysis reveals insights into the beginning of rice domestication in the Lower Yangtze during the 10th millennium BP

The Lower Yangtze valley is widely recognized as the earliest center of rice agriculture. The process of rice domestication, based on the morphology of spikelet bases, has been traced between 9000 and 5000 BP. However, the domestication status of rice before 9000 BP remains a subject of debate due to the near absence of macrobotanical remains in the region. This research aims to address this gap by investigating rice impressions and inclusions found in ceramic sherds from Shangshan site, the earliest Neolithic site in the Lower Yangtze valley. Utilizing microCT analysis, this study examined 184 impressions of Oryza sp. spikelet bases from ceramics sherds, generating the most extensive database of rice remains dating to the early Shangshan phase. The results offer valuable insights into the early onset of rice domestication in the Lower Yangtze during the 10th millennium BP. This study represents a pioneering use of microCT analysis of ceramic sherds with early plant impressions.

Archaeology and ecology of acavus snails in Sri Lanka’s semi-arid to intermediate zones: uncovering holocene microclimatic changes

This study presents a discovery of Acavus haemastoma, wet-humid favouring arboreal land snails from Semi-Arid coastal lagoon habitat during the late Holocene period in Southern Sri Lanka, occurring around the mid-4th millennium BP. These findings challenge established notions regarding palaeoecological conditions within the Semi-Arid and Transitional Zones (SATZ), prompting a re-evaluation of prevailing archaeological assumptions. We propose that the presence of Acavus sp. in the SATZ is primarily attributed to their natural behaviours rather than anthropogenic influences. In conjunction with an examination of early archaeological literature, we explore the implications of humid phases within the SATZ, aligning these phases with Acavus snails’ distribution patterns and climatic fluctuations and proposing the value of land snails in Sri Lanka as a potential proxy for small scale micro-climatic conditions.

The herding revolution in China under the impact of the 4.2 ka climate event

During the late fifth millennium BP, cattle and sheep were reintroduced into North China, then they were widespread adopted under the 4.2 ka climate event, which was associated with the rise of early states. With the synchronous exploitation of primary and secondary products, the herding revolution contributed to the cultural dynamics in North China.

Late History of Cattle Breeds in Central Europe in Light of Genetic and Archaeogenetic Sources-Overview, Thoughts, and Perspectives.

Although Europe was not a primary centre of cattle domestication, its expansion from the Middle East and subsequent development created a complex pattern of cattle breed diversity. Many isolated populations of local historical breeds still carry the message about the physical and genetic traits of ancient populations. Since the way of life of human communities starting from the eleventh millennium BP was strongly determined by livestock husbandry, the knowledge of cattle diversity through the ages is helpful in the interpretation of many archaeological findings. Historical cattle diversity is currently at the intersection of two leading directions of genetic research. Firstly, it is archaeogenetics attempting to recover and interpret the preserved genetic information directly from archaeological finds. The advanced archaeogenetic approaches meet with the population genomics of extant cattle populations. The immense amount of genetic information collected from living cattle, due to its key economic role, allows for reconstructing the genetic profiles of the ancient populations backwards. The present paper aims to place selected archaeogenetic, genetic, and genomic findings in the picture of cattle history in Central Europe, as suggested by archaeozoological and historical records. Perspectives of the methodical connection between the genetic approaches and the approaches of traditional archaeozoology, such as osteomorphology and osteometry, are discussed. The importance, actuality, and effectiveness of combining different approaches to each archaeological find, such as morphological characterization, interpretation of the historical context, and molecular data, are stressed.

Vegetation History and Estuarine Ecology of the Texas Gulf Coastal Plain in Relation to Climate and Sea-Level Changes According to Three Pollen Cores

The vegetation history of the Texas Gulf Coastal Plain in the Holocene is considered according to pollen evidence from three coring sites where both terrestrial and marine ecology are reconstructed. These pollen sites record oscillations in the limit of the Southeastern US Forest zone in relation to climate changes, with a major, southward migration of the forest limit and expansion of the range limit of Betula nigra being recorded in the 6th millennium BP and a northward migration in the 4th millennium BP. The appearance of Rhizophora pollen also indicates increased tropical influence in the Middle Holocene. Moreover, changes in the salinity profiles of estuaries are reconstructed in relation to broader coastal environmental changes, such as sea-level oscillations and the formation of barrier islands, with a major sea-level transgression phase being recorded in the 4th millennium BP and still-stand conditions after the 3rd millennium BP. These vegetation changes are finally compared to occupational evidence of prehistoric humans in the Central Texas Gulf Coastal Plain region in relation to ecological factors. Here, human occupation of the coastal zone is correlated with afforestation, the proliferation of pecan and the emergence of low-salinity estuaries.

Textiles, basketry and cordage from the Early Neolithic settlement of La Marmotta, Lazio

Archaeological investigation of Circum-Alpine lake, or pile, dwellings has afforded unprecedented insight into Neolithic and Bronze Age societies. The discovery in 1989 of a submerged settlement near Rome added an early (eighth millennium BP) geographical outlier to this distribution. Two decades of excavation at La Marmotta have identified more than a dozen dwellings and an enormous assemblage of organic remains. Here, the authors present an overview of the textiles, basketry and cordage recovered, and the tools used to manufacture them. The assemblage paints a more complete picture of the technological expertise of Neolithic societies and their ability to exploit and process plant materials to produce a wide range of crafts.

Archaeological evidence for initial migration of Neolithic Proto Sino-Tibetan speakers from Yellow River valley to Tibetan Plateau

Sino-Tibetan is the second largest language family in the world. Recent linguistic and genetic studies have traced its origin to Neolithic millet farmers in the Yellow River region of China around 8,000 y ago and also suggested that initial divergence among branches of Sino-Tibetan coincided with expansion of the Neolithic Yangshao culture to the west and southwest during the sixth millennium BP. However, archaeological investigations to date have been insufficient to understand the lifeways of these migrant Proto Sino-Tibetan speakers. Here, we present the results of the interdisciplinary research on the material culture and ritual activities related to the initial southwestward migration of Yangshao populations, based on evidence from microfossil remains on ceramics at three sites in Gansu and Sichuan, regional archaeological contexts, and ethnographic accounts of modern Gyalrong Tibetans. The first Yangshao migrants may have integrated with indigenous hunter-gatherers in the NW Sichuan highlands, and adopted broad-spectrum subsistence strategies, consisting of both millet farming and foraging for local wild resources. Meanwhile, the migrants appear to have retained important ritual traditions previously established in their Yellow River homelands. They prepared qu starter with Monascus mold and rice for brewing alcoholic beverages, which may have been consumed in communal drinking festivals associated with the performance of ritual dancing. Such ritual activities, which to some extent have survived in the skorbro-zajiu ceremonies in SW China, may have then played a central role in maintaining and reinforcing cultural identities, social values, and connections with the homelands of the Proto Sino-Tibetan migrants.

The Shaqadud Archaeological Project (Sudan): exploring prehistoric cultural adaptations in the Sahelian hinterlands

The authors present preliminary results from a new research project based in Jebel Shaqadud, Sudan. Their findings highlight the potential for this region's archaeological record to expand our understanding of the adaptation strategies used by human groups in arid north-east African environments away from rivers and lakes during the Holocene. Furthermore, they present exceptionally early radiocarbon dates that push postglacial human occupation in the eastern Sahel back to the twelfth millennium BP.

High lamb natural mortality versus specialized culling at Bangga on the southern Tibetan Plateau 3000 BP

AbstractPastoralism has a long history on the high‐elevation Tibetan Plateau. However, the specific risks faced by early flocks on the plateau and ways that herders managed their animals have not been well explored. Dated to the third millennium BP, the archeological settlement of Bangga represents an early agro‐pastoral community at 3800 m above sea level (m a.s.l.) and a rare opportunity to examine these issues. Mortality profiles have been a powerful tool for reconstructing livestock herding strategies from archeological sites globally. Here, we used dental eruption and wear to reconstruct sheep mortality profiles from Bangga. To contextualize regional archeological data, we also simulated sheep natural mortality levels using flock culling profiles and die off data for recent Tibetan flocks. Mortality profiles from Bangga revealed that 64.28% (N = 42) of the sheep died within the first year of their life. This profile was consistent with Payne's Anatolian models for specialized management for milk. Simulations revealed that the same profile might be the product of low culling levels and high natural lamb death rates. In this high elevation, high‐risk pastoral setting, specialization was a less probable interpretation than environmentally driven lamb mortality. Evidence for corralling at Bangga pointed to specific ancient disease and nutritional risks associated with periodic confinement and lack of access to pasture. Our findings indicate that high juvenile mortality presented a threat for ancient sheep herders who suffered serious environmental pressures on the Tibetan Plateau. Ethnographically grounded mortality simulations have utility for consideration of equifinality between culling and die off profiles constituting a global challenge in zooarcheological research.

Changing fire regimes during the first olive cultivation in the Mediterranean Basin: New high-resolution evidence from the Sea of Galilee, Israel

Throughout the Mediterranean biome, fire has been a dominant natural agent of change and an important tool for anthropogenic landscape modifications for millennia. However, fundamental knowledge on the complex linkages among fire, vegetation, and early agricultural practices remains limited. This research explores the role these processes have in shaping the landscape in the southern Levant – a key region with a long tradition of agriculture and horticulture. Olive horticulture is among the oldest and most widespread agricultural forms in the Mediterranean Basin. The earliest palynological evidence for olive horticulture is recorded in the Sea of Galilee in Israel and suggests that the first major olive cultivation began during the end of the 8th millennium BP. We present a multi-proxy dataset from the Sea of Galilee before and during the first olive cultivation (~7700–6680 a cal BP). Quantitative analyses of a charcoal time series categorized into distinct charcoal morphotypes indicate changes in fire regimes and sources of biomass burning. With a two-year-resolution, our study offers one of the highest resolution sedimentary charcoal records yet available worldwide. Isotopes from lake carbonates provide new evidence for the climatic setting of this phase, providing an independent evaluation of climatic impacts on vegetation and fire. Combined with palynological evidence, this multi-proxy dataset provides new insights into the linkages between fire, climate, fuel, and early horticultural practice. The fire regime changed with the start of olive cultivation in the Sea of Galilee's catchment. Fire frequency increased just before and during the expansion of olive cultivation, probably driven by the anthropogenic use of fire for clearing the landscape and promoting fertile soils. Once olive orchards were established, low magnitude fires became common, suggesting anthropogenic manipulation of the fire regime with frequent, low intensity, controlled burnings. Fuel limitation and low fuel connectivity likely played a role in both pre-cultivation and cultivation phases, resulting in low fire activity during times of reduced grass and woody vegetation cover. This study allows a new perspective into the temporal variability of middle-Holocene fire regimes in the Levant and an increased understanding of the dynamic role of fire during early horticulture practices. Our data also have relevance for future challenges that cultural legacies such as olive cultivation will face.

Hydatid disease (Echinococcosis granulosis) diagnosis from skeletal osteolytic lesions in an early seventh-millennium BP forager community from preagricultural northern Vietnam.

Con Co Ngua is a complex, sedentary forager site from northern Vietnam dating to the early seventh millennium BP. Prior research identified a calcified Echinococcus granulosis cyst, which causes hydatid disease. Osteolytic lesions consistent with hydatid disease were also present in this individual and others. Hydatid disease is observed in high frequencies in pastoralists, and its presence in a hunter-gatherer community raises questions regarding human-animal interaction prior to farming. The objective of this article is to identify and describe the epidemiology of hydatid disease in the human skeletal assemblage at Con Co Ngua. One hundred and fifty-five individuals were macroscopically assessed for lesions. Of these, eight individuals were radiographed. Hydatid disease was diagnosed using a new threshold criteria protocol derived from clinical literature, which prioritizes lesions specific to the parasite. Twenty-two individuals (14.2%) presented with osteolytic lesions consistent with hydatid disease, affecting the distal humerus, proximal femur and forearm, and pelvis. Seven individuals radiographed (4.5%) had multilocular cystic lesions strongly diagnostic for hydatid disease. All probable cases had lesions of the distal humerus. The remaining lesions were macroscopically identical to those radiographed and were considered possible cases. While hydatid disease has previously been found in pre-agricultural communities, the high prevalence at Con Co Ngua is non-incidental. We propose that the presence of wild canids and management of wild buffalo and deer increased the risk of disease transmission. These findings further reveal subsistence complexity among hunter-gatherers living millennia prior to the adoption of farming in Southeast Asia.

The Shape Diversity of Olive Stones Resulting from Domestication and Diversification Unveils Traits of the Oldest Known 6500-Years-Old Table Olives from Hishuley Carmel Site (Israel)

The first exploited and domesticated olive forms are still unknown. The exceptionally well-preserved stones from the submerged Hishuley Carmel site (Israel), dating from the middle of the 7th millennium BP, offer us the opportunity to study the oldest table olives discovered so far. We apply a geometrical morphometric analysis in reference to a collection of modern stones from supposed wild populations and traditional varieties of various origins, genetic lineages and uses. Analyses carried out on modern material allow the characterization of the extent of stone morphological variation in the olive tree and the differentiation of distinct morphotypes. They also allow to discuss the status of supposed wild populations and the divergence between groups of varieties and their wild progenitors, interpreted from evolutionary and biogeographical perspectives. The shape of archaeological stones compared to the differentiation model unveils morphological traits of olives most likely belonging to both wild olive trees and domesticated forms, with some of them showing a notable domestication syndrome. These forms at the early stages of domestication, some of which are surprisingly morphologically close to modern varieties, were probably used for dual use (production of olive oil and table olives), and possibly contributed to the dispersion of the olive tree throughout the Mediterranean Basin and to its subsequent diversification.

The Philippines. Remote sensing the margins of the gold trade: Ethnohistorical archaeology and GIS analysis of five gold trade networks in Luzon, Philippines, in the last millennium BP By Michael Armand P. Canilao Oxford: BAR Publishing, 2020. Pp. 119. Maps, Plates, Bibliography, Index.

The Philippines. Remote sensing the margins of the gold trade: Ethnohistorical archaeology and GIS analysis of five gold trade networks in Luzon, Philippines, in the last millennium BP By Michael Armand P. Canilao Oxford: BAR Publishing, 2020. Pp. 119. Maps, Plates, Bibliography, Index. - Volume 52 Issue 3

From the Eurasian Steppes to the Roman Circuses: A Review of Early Development of Horse Breeding and Management.

Simple SummaryHorses were domesticated later than any other major livestock species. Their role in shaping ancient civilizations cannot be overestimated. As a primary means of transportation, an essential asset in warfare, and later one of the key elements of circus entertainment, horses quickly became luxurious goods. Vast amounts of money were invested in the horse industry resulted resulting in the rapid development of horse breeding and husbandry. This review examines paleogenetic, archeological, and classical studies on managing horses in antiquity. Many ancient approaches and practices in horse management are still relevant today and some of them, now abandoned, are worth re-examination.The domestication of the horse began about 5500 years ago in the Eurasian steppes. In the following millennia horses spread across the ancient world, and their role in transportation and warfare affected every ancient culture. Ownership of horses became an indicator of wealth and social status. The importance of horses led to a growing interest in their breeding and management. Many phenotypic traits, such as height, behavior, and speed potential, have been proven to be a subject of selection; however, the details of ancient breeding practices remain mostly unknown. From the fourth millennium BP, through the Iron Age, many literature sources thoroughly describe horse training systems, as well as various aspects of husbandry, many of which are still in use today. The striking resemblance of ancient and modern equine practices leaves us wondering how much was accomplished through four thousand years of horse breeding.

Forager and farmer evolutionary adaptations to malaria evidenced by 7000\xa0years of thalassemia in Southeast Asia

Thalassemias are inherited blood disorders that are found in high prevalences in the Mediterranean, Southeast Asia and the Pacific. These diseases provide varying levels of resistance to malaria and are proposed to have emerged as an adaptive response to malaria in these regions. The transition to agriculture in the Holocene has been suggested to have influenced the selection for thalassemia in the Mediterranean as land clearance for farming encouraged interaction between Anopheles mosquitos, the vectors for malaria, and human groups. Here we document macroscopic and microscopic skeletal evidence for the presence of thalassemia in both hunter-gatherer (Con Co Ngua) and early agricultural (Man Bac) populations in northern Vietnam. Firstly, our findings demonstrate that thalassemia emerged prior to the transition to agriculture in Mainland Southeast Asia, from at least the early seventh millennium BP, contradicting a long-held assumption that agriculture was the main driver for an increase in malaria in Southeast Asia. Secondly, we describe evidence for significant malarial burden in the region during early agriculture. We argue that the introduction of farming into the region was not the initial driver of the selection for thalassemia, as it may have been in other regions of the world.

Early production of table olives at a mid-7th millennium BP submerged site off the Carmel coast (Israel)

We present here the earliest evidence for large-scale table olive production from the mid-7th millennium BP inundated site of Hishuley Carmel on the northern Mediterranean coast of Israel. Olive pit size and fragmentation patterns, pollen as well as the architecture of installations associated with pits from this site, were compared to finds from the nearby and slightly earlier submerged Kfar Samir site. Results indicate that at Kfar Samir olive oil was extracted, while at Hishuley Carmel the data showed that large quantities of table olives, the oldest reported to date, were prepared. This process was most probably facilitated by the site’s proximity to the Mediterranean Sea, which served as a source of both sea water and salt required for debittering/pickling/salting the fruit, as experimentally demonstrated in this study. Comparison of pit morphometry from modern cultivars, wild-growing trees and the archaeological sites, intimates that in pit morphology the ancient pits resemble wild olives, but we cannot totally exclude the possibility that they derive from early cultivated trees. Our findings demonstrate that in this region, olive oil production may have predated table olive preparation, with each development serving as a milestone in the early exploitation of the olive.

New evidence for early human habitation in the Nyingchi Region, Southeast Tibetan Plateau

The lack of archaeological work has long impeded our understanding of prehistoric and historical human inhabitation and East-West interactions on the southeastern Tibetan Plateau (TP). In this study, we conducted a series of systematic archaeological investigations in the Nyingchi region, on the southeastern TP. We examined archaeological stratigraphies from 10 sites and collected charred seeds and charcoals for accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dating. The 26 radiocarbon dates show that the earliest inhabitation in the Nyingchi region can be traced back to as early as the fifth millennium BP. In addition, results of summed probability distribution (SPD) of radiocarbon dates suggest that intensive human activities occurred between c. 2700 and 2000 cal. yr BP. Together with the pottery net sinkers found in previous investigation, the newly identified archaeobotanical assemblages, including crops such as barley ( Hordeum vulgare), naked barley ( Hordeum vulgare var. nudum), wheat ( Triticum aestivum) and pea ( Pisum sativum), also confirm that cultivation and fishing were important subsistence strategies for people living in the prehistoric Nyingchi. The discoveries of domesticated crops from Southwest Asia also suggest that the southeastern TP, represented by the Nyingchi region, was part of the early communication network between the East and the West, predating historical Highland Silk Road.

Early reliable evidence of the Etruscan shrew (Suncusetruscus) in southwestern Europe during ancient times. Reconstructing its dispersal process along the Mediterranean Basin

This paper reports a new and well dated record of the Etruscan shrew (Suncus etruscus), which is the smallest extant terrestrial mammal, and provides a comprehensive review of the fossil record of this species. Three remains were found in the small vertebrate assemblage of the Estrecho Cave (Cuenca, Spain), which dates from 2310–2290 and 2272–2149 years cal BP. The morphometric analysis performed provided unequivocal traits of this species. We analyse this new record of the Etruscan shrew together with a review of its fossil records along the Mediterranean Basin. Because of the scarcity of reliable records of this species, its origin and palaeobiogeographical history remain still unclear. According to available data, the Etruscan shrew populations that colonised Europe were most probably originated in Asia, where it was present at least since the Middle Pleistocene. Its dispersal process across the Mediterranean Basin shows a pattern in which it progressively extended its distribution towards the west from mid-4th millennium BP onwards. This process most certainly involved the accidental translocation of the species by humans across the Mediterranean through navigation routes, resulting in its introduction into most of the large Mediterranean islands, besides the mainland of Europe and North Africa.

Landscape, the Visual: A Review of Michael Armand Canilao’s Remote Sensing the Margins of the Gold Trade: Ethnohistorical archaeology and GIS analysis of five gold trade networks in Luzon, Philippines, in the last millennium BP (Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 2020)

A Review of Michael Armand Canilao’s Remote Sensing the Margins of the Gold Trade: Ethnohistorical archaeology and GIS analysis of five gold trade networks in Luzon, Philippines, in the last millennium BP, (Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 2020).

Megadrought and cultural exchange along the proto-silk road

Arid Central Asia (ACA), with its diverse landscapes of high mountains, oases, and deserts, hosted the central routes of the Silk Roads that linked trade centers from East Asia to the eastern Mediterranean. Ecological pockets and ecoclines in ACA are largely determined by local precipitation. However, little research has gone into the effects of hydroclimatic changes on trans-Eurasian cultural exchange. Here, we reconstruct precipitation changes in ACA, covering the mid-late Holocene with a U-Th dated, ~3 a resolution, multi-proxy time series of replicated stalagmites from the southeastern Fergana Valley, Kyrgyzstan. Our data reveal a 640-a megadrought between 5820 and 5180 a BP, which likely impacted cultural development in ACA and impeded the expansion of cultural traits along oasis routes. Instead, it may have diverted the earliest transcontinental exchange along the Eurasian steppe during the 5th millennium BP. With gradually increasing precipitation after the megadrought, settlement of peoples in the oases and river valleys may have facilitated the opening of the oasis routes, “prehistoric Silk Roads”, of trans-Eurasian exchange. By the 4th millennium BP, this process may have reshaped cultures across the two continents, laying the foundation for the organized Silk Roads.