Millennium BCE Research Articles

Graphemic Variation in Morphosyntactic Context: The Syllable u in Classic Maya Hieroglyphic Writing.

Throughout the long history of Classic Maya hieroglyphs, a logosyllabic writing system used from the late first millennium BCE through the mid-second millennium CE in southern Mesoamerica, the most commonly recorded phonetic value was the syllable u (/ʔu/). With over a dozen different u hieroglyphs, Classic Maya scribes had more options for recording /ʔu/ than any other syllable or logograph. Cognitive approaches to writing systems typically attribute graphemic variation (i.e., alternation between signs with equivalent linguistic value) to semantic differences like animacy or to non-linguistic factors like identity. Distribution of Classic Maya u hieroglyphs, however, suggests that morphosyntactic context influenced which grapheme scribes wrote and when. This case suggests that scribal knowledge of Classic Maya hieroglyphs included ideas about writing's relationship to language. It also highlights the cognitive relevance of morphosyntax for a writing system's users as they differentiate among graphic signs with identical linguistic denotation.

Combining Geo-Archaeology and Historical Nile Records to Understand Predynastic Settlement Patterns in the Region of the Nile’s First Cataract, Egypt

Abstract This paper aims to contribute new data to understanding early Predynastic settlement patterns in Egypt at the beginning of the state formation process in the 4th millennium bce. It focuses on the early settlements of the First Nile Cataract region. We employ three different datasets to address the issue retrieved from a recent archaeological investigation and drill coring and from Nile records available from archaeological and historical sources. The analysis is performed in a gis-based environment and through inundation modelling. Data suggest early Predynastic settlements at the First Cataract may have been settled all year round. They appear to be deliberately placed above the annual high flood level and have water resources for most of the year. The new geo-archaeological data further suggests that the average high inundation level for the early 4th millennium bce was similar to that documented for the end of the millennium.

Diverse prehistoric cattle husbandry strategies in the forests of Central Europe.

During the sixth millennium BCE, the first farmers of Central Europe rapidly expanded across a varied mosaic of forested environments. Such environments would have offered important sources of mineral-rich animal feed and shelter, prompting the question: to what extent did early farmers exploit forests to raise their herds? Here, to resolve this, we have assembled multi-regional datasets, comprising bulk and compound-specific stable isotope values from zooarchaeological remains and pottery, and conducted cross-correlation analyses within a palaeo-environmental framework. Our findings reveal a diversity of pasturing strategies for cattle employed by early farmers, with a notable emphasis on intensive utilization of forests for grazing and seasonal foddering in some regions. This experimentation with forest-based animal feeds by early farmers would have enhanced animal fertility and milk yields for human consumption, concurrently contributing to the expansion of prehistoric farming settlements and the transformation of forest ecosystems. Our study emphasizes the intricate relationship that existed between early farmers and forested landscapes, shedding light on the adaptive dynamics that shaped humans, animals and environments in the past.

Exploring the acid-insoluble shell organic matrix of freshwater mussels (Unionoida) as a proxy for palaeodietary and paleoenvironmental studies

ABSTRACT The shells of freshwater mussels, commonly found at archaeological sites associated with the Kodjadermen-Gumelnița-Karanovo VI human groups (5th millennium BCE, Romania and Bulgaria), were a significant dietary component for this population. The organic matrix of these ancient shells is often well-preserved and can be analysed using stable isotopes. This study establishes the empirical relationship between the isotopic composition of the acid-insoluble shell organic matrix (AIM) and the soft tissues of modern Unio tumidus. A quality criterion for AIM (C:N ratio 3.6 (3.3–<3.8)) was defined, and isotopic offsets (Δ15NAIM-defatted body = +0.95‰, Δ13CAIM-defatted body = +0.93‰ for soft tissues; Δ15NAIM-muscle = +1.7‰, Δ13CAIM-muscle = +0.3‰ for the adductor muscle) were determined. Our data suggest that the Gumelnița mussels were omnivorous, with a similar trophic level to carp and pond turtles, sourced from diverse water bodies (rivers, lakes …) based on δ13C values.

Fibulae of the Southern Levant During the Iron Age II: Chronology, Inter-Regional Connectivity and Performance

ABSTRACT The fibula appeared in the Levant during the late second millennium bce and gradually replaced the toggle pin as the common accessory to fasten clothing. In this contribution, we trace the dissemination of fibulae in the southern Levant, pinpointing its chronology, the development of local variants and significant locales of consumption. The analysis of site-specific case studies suggests that the fibula was worn first by elites of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah as part of a new fashion, and became popular among the members of the colonial society under the Assyrian empire.

The Holocene evolution of the fluvial system of the southern Hessische Ried (Upper Rhine Graben, Germany) and its role for the use of the river Landgraben as a waterway during Roman times

Abstract. Intensive human intervention in the natural drainage system of the Hessische Ried (Upper Rhine Graben, Germany) resulted in the transformation of a large wetland into an intensively used cultural landscape. At least since the first century CE, when Romans conducted early river regulation and water management, the natural water network has experienced extensive anthropogenic re-organisation. The LandGraben project focuses on the reconstruction of the natural and anthropogenic watercourse systems along the river Landgraben, a tributary to the river Rhine in the northern Hessische Ried. Several rivers from the southern Hessische Ried could have fed the river Landgraben during Roman times via the meandering Palaeo-Neckar depression, thus increasing both length and discharge of the Roman waterway. In this study, we present results of our investigations within the southern Hessische Ried to reconstruct the former channel network that was used by Romans for the transportation of troops, wares and border security. Our approach integrates the use of high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) as a base for geophysical measurements (electrical resistivity tomography, ERT), direct push sensing and sediment coring in combination with sedimentological and geochemical analyses of the encountered sedimentary units. Local chronostratigraphies were established based on radiocarbon dating. Based on our results, we are able to differentiate a palimpsest of several abandoned fluvial channels throughout the southern Hessische Ried and to reconstruct the spatio-temporal development of the corresponding fluvial systems. Chronostratigraphic data show that the Palaeo-Neckar stopped flowing through the Hessische Ried around 10 000 cal BCE. Moreover, we found that the river Weschnitz, the largest of the possible Landgraben tributaries, stopped flowing through the Palaeo-Neckar depression at ca. 3000 cal BCE. Instead, it took a right-angled shortcut westwards to the river Rhine, north of the city of Lorsch. For the first time, we present geomorphological evidence that the river Weschnitz was not diverted by the Romans as speculated so far. This is corroborated by numerous wooden posts of human-made construction crossing an E–W running water course at the modern Weschnitz knee, with the oldest posts being dendrochronologically dated to the fourth and third millennia BCE. We further argue that the river Winkelbach/Lauter formed its knee towards the river Rhine and thus left the Palaeo-Neckar depression not later than the second century CE but most probably even contemporaneously with the formation of the Weschnitz diversion. In the case of the Winkelbach/Lauter, a high-energy flood event presumably related to strong rainfall and/or meltwater processes in the Odenwald Mountains is assumed to be responsible for the initiation of the new, diverted water course. With regard to the Landgraben and its use as a waterway within the Roman fluvioscape of the Hessische Ried, we therefore conclude that the Romans successfully collected water from several smaller rivers, such as from the rivers Modau and Darmbach and from even smaller tributaries, to make the river Landgraben a navigable waterway. The rivers Weschnitz and Winkelbach/Lauter, however, did not contribute any water to the Landgraben system during Roman times.

Roman History

We start this survey in Italy during the early first millennium bce; a context on which Seth Bernard's new monograph offers an exciting, and in several respects transformative, contribution.1 Its general claim is that, while Rome did not develop a historiographical tradition until Fabius Pictor, there was a keen and pervasive interest in history across ancient Italy, since the early Iron Age, which played out across a wide range of venues and media. The brief of the historian must be to jettison any hierarchical approach to the interplay between textual and archaeological evidence, and to take as broad a view on what history amounts to as possible.

An archaeological and archaeoseismological perspective on earthquakes in the coastal cities of Western Anatolia in the 3rd millennium BCE: Settlement abandonment and changes in social structures

An archaeological and archaeoseismological perspective on earthquakes in the coastal cities of Western Anatolia in the 3rd millennium BCE: Settlement abandonment and changes in social structures

Tracing horseback riding and transport in the human skeleton.

Among the most widely used methods for understanding human-horse relationships in the archaeological record is the identification of human skeletal pathologies associated with mounted horseback riding. In particular, archaeologists encountering specific bony changes to the hip, femur, and lower back often assert a causal link between these features and prolonged periods of mounted horseback riding. The identification of these features have recently been used to assert the early practice of mounted horseback riding among the Yamnaya culture of western Eurasia during the third and fourth millennium BCE. Here, we summarize the methodological hurdles and analytical risks of using this approach in the absence of valid comparative datasets and outline best practices for using human osteological data in the study of ancient animal transport.

Secrets Buried in the Pits: Ritual Activities in Western Anatolia in the First Half of the Second Millennium bce

Western Anatolian ritual pits provide valuable insights into socio-cultural, economic and symbolic practices during the Early to Middle Bronze Age. Findings in feasting pits, such as carbonized seeds and animal bones, indicate a strong link between ritual and food. Standing stones, altars and carefully arranged artefacts suggest a symbolic and sacred dimension beyond mere ceremonies. The pits from this period contain carbonized seeds and fragments of wood, indicating the presence of small fires during certain rituals. Changing features in ritual pits from the Early to Middle Bronze Age reveal a dynamic relationship between spatial arrangements and religious practices. The study shows that in the first half of the second millennium bce several ritual activities known from different regions reached western Anatolia for the first time. Interregional trade involved not only goods, but also the dissemination of rituals over a wide geographical area. This cultural interaction reveals western Anatolia as a dynamic and influential centre in this historical period. By exploring the ritual practices of second-millennium bce western Anatolia, this paper presents new perspectives on the rituals of the region.

Obsidian and Rock Crystal Artefacts as Prestige Finds Based on Raw Material Resources in Çine-Tepecik

Abstract Within its location on the Çine plain, south of the Great Meander River, Çine-Tepecik is an important settlement inhabited continuously from the Chalcolithic to the end of the Bronze Age. Çine-Tepecik reflects an advanced lithic assemblage based on different raw material resources from the earliest period. Obsidian is among the earliest finds in Tepecik showing interregional trade based on the system of exchange, and is a resource that societies prioritized in their social lives and interregional communication since the beginning of the settlement process. Starting from the 4th millennium BCE until the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, obsidian was obtained from three main resources in the Aegean. These are Melos and Antiparos from the Cyclades; Giali from the Dodecanese and Göllü Dağ, Nenezi and Acıgöl from Central Anatolia. These connections, based on trade with the Aegean and Central Anatolia, reveal a skilled craft of obsidian tool production, as well as an obsidian and rock crystal vessel tradition in Tepecik during the Middle Bronze Age. The assemblage, which has a special meaning among prestige products, belongs to a craft activity that requires skill and experience, and is an indicator of socio-cultural richness. During the 2nd millennium BCE, in the wide geographical region covering Anatolia, Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean obsidian and rock crystal vessels were among the special items produced for the royal or elite class. The stone vessel assemblage reflects the political and economic power of these regions, and also provides an understanding of interregional cultural and commercial connections. In the Çine-Tepecik Middle Bronze Age settlement, the obsidian and rock crystal vessel traditions followed a similar chronological development as the geography extending to Anatolia, the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean, and brings new finds to regional archaeology.

Plant cultivation and diversity at the Early Neolithic settlement in Biskupice in Poland

The emergence of the Linear Pottery Culture (LBK) during the Neolithic period within Polish territory 5400–4900 BC, introduced plant cultivation, yet the definitive list of cultivated species remains debated. This study examines plant assemblages (fruits, seeds, pollen, and spores) from the LBK settlement in Biskupice, southern Poland, aiming to identify cultivated and wild species used during the development of the first stable settlements in the Carpathian Foothills. Due to extensive sampling, Biskupice yielded over 11,000 macroscopic plant specimens, enabling detailed analysis of plant diversity, distribution, and implications for agrarian and dietary practices. The analysis revealed a focus on emmer and einkorn wheat cultivation, with barley playing a minor role, alongside evidence of flax and pulses. Radiocarbon dating supported the settlement’s existence in the 6th millennium BCE, and confirmed the use of barley. However, a younger date excluded bread wheat cultivation at this site. The plant assemblage included a diverse array of herbaceous wild plants like black bindweed, fat hen and brome species, suggesting their economic use. Additionally, the presence of cockspur grass, linked with Southeast Asia, indicates alternative migration routes of weeds in Europe, as supported by radiocarbon dating. Palynological analysis suggests existence of nearby cereal plots or the processing of cereals at the settlement, supporting archaeological evidence.

Early science and colossal stone engineering in Menga, a Neolithic dolmen (Antequera, Spain).

Megaliths represent the earliest form of monumental stone architecture. The earliest megalithic chambers in Europe appeared in France in the fifth millennium BCE. Menga is the oldest of the great dolmens in Iberia (approximately 3800 to 3600 BCE). Menga's capstone #5 weighing 150 tons is the largest stone ever moved in Iberia as part of the megalithic phenomenon and one of the largest in Europe. The research presented here proposes a completely innovative interpretation of how this colossal monument was built. It comprises a geoarchaeological analysis encompassing three major components: (i) the angles of the planes of each stone, (ii) the stratigraphic polarity of each structural element, and (iii) the depth of the foundations. Our results show that Menga is a unique example of creative genius and early science among Neolithic societies. It was designed as a completely original engineering project, for which we know of no precedents in Iberia.

Revealing ancient technology: a high-energy X-ray computed tomography examination of a Mesopotamian copper alloy head

Although the origins of lost wax casting extend back into the 5th millennium BCE, it was not until the development of hollow core casting that life-sized metal sculptures could be produced. Based on existing evidence, the earliest adoption of this technique, which involves the inclusion of a clay core within a wax model, occurred in Iraq (Mesopotamia) during the Early Dynastic III period (ca. 2600–2350 BCE). To date, only one hollow core casting from the succeeding Akkadian period (ca. 2350–2150 BCE)—the Sargon Head in the collection of the Iraq Museum—has been studied from a technical point of view. The recent attribution of The Metropolitan Museum of Art's Head of a ruler to this formative period of hollow core lost wax casting provided the impetus for its examination by high-energy X-ray computed tomography—the most practical technique for an object that is continuously on display that could image in 3D the interior morphology of this sculpture given the considerable thickness of its metal walls. This scan revealed a markedly different style of production than the Sargon Head. Although further research on early castings is required to determine the chronological implications of the differences observed and to elucidate more generally the early development of hollow casting technology, the scan of the Head of a ruler provides evidence of some of the challenges encountered and problem-solving strategies used in the casting process.

Attempts to Understand the World: The significance of divination inEtruria in the mid first millennium BCE

The paper focus on divination in the Etruscan area. By tracing the evolution of divination in the Etruscan civilization and comparing it to other forms of divination in different regions, it aims to elucidate the proximate link between the evolution of divination in ancient societies, exemplified by the Etruscans, and the advent of urbanization. Furthermore, the paper seeks to illuminate the similarities between divination in the ancient Mediterranean and the Near East since the Iron Age, which reflect a marvelous resonance between two different societies during a period of transformative urban states. The preceding discussions collectively converge upon the central tenet of this paper: divination represents one of the figurative embodiments of the cosmology of the ancient ancestors, and it is their significant endeavor to read the world in a systematic manner.

From Drought to Deity: Borrowing Freshwater Worship in Third Millennium BCE Shahdad

From Drought to Deity: Borrowing Freshwater Worship in Third Millennium BCE Shahdad

Sacred Space and Ritual Behaviour in Ancient Mesopotamia: A View from Tello/Girsu

Girsu, the modern site of Tello (southern Iraq), represents one of the earliest known urban centres of the ancient world, along with Uruk, Eridu, and Ur. During the 3rd millennium BCE (3000–2000 BCE), Girsu was revered as the sanctuary of the Sumerian heroic deity Ningirsu, who fought with supernatural beasts and made possible the introduction of irrigation and agriculture in Sumer. While much is known about the gods, their roles, and rituals inside the temples, there is little textual or archaeological evidence concerning the rituals that took place in the large open-air plazas adjacent to the temples. These areas within the sacred precinct were where the general population would gather to participate in festivals and ceremonies to honour the gods. To better understand the ancient cultic realm in southern Mesopotamia, an in-depth investigation of a favissa (ritual pit) discovered within the sacred precinct at Girsu was undertaken. The excavations recovered a large quantity of ceramics and animal remains that had been used for ritual purposes. Through the study of archaeological remains of cultic spaces at Girsu, information on ritual behaviour such as sacrificial animal slaughtering and consumption for the purpose of feasting, the types of libations provided to quench the thirst of the gods, and the distance travelled to take part in the annual festivals to pay homage to the patron god of their sacred city were explored. Analysis of the associated ceramics, cuneiform texts, and zooarchaeological remains (including stable isotope data), allowed a multi-faceted and integrative approach to better understand ceremonial behaviour and ritual feasting in this sacred city. New insights into communal and performative participation in ceremonies, especially by non-elite individuals, are generated. These data increase our knowledge not only of how Girsu’s citizens organised their sacred spaces and religious festivals, but also of how they behaved in order to satisfy the ever-demanding needs of their gods.

Social group identities and semantic domains in the ancient Near East

Abstract Digital Humanities has an increasing need for widely applicable and easy-to-use methods across disciplinary boundaries. We believe that the cross-disciplinary methods we have developed for the study of the ancient Near East are useful for the study of other research questions outside the field of “Digital Assyriology”. The article presents an overview of automated language processing for lexical-semantic analysis, social network analysis, and content analysis. We draw on the work in our research group, which aims to address how changing empires affect social group identities and lifeways in the first millennium BCE in Mesopotamia. The article places the methods our research team has developed into the larger methodological context of Digital Humanities (DH). The article presents an overview of the tools our research group has found useful in our study of ancient social groups. Sections 1 and 2 give the necessary background for the reader to understand the particular challenges related to the study of ancient Mesopotamia and how we have overcome them. The concrete case studies presented in Sections 3 and 4, however, are kept as general as possible, to facilitate similar approaches in adjacent fields of study. Our methodology and approaches are well documented and openly available, and in our view can be used on similar text materials, by other groups interested in DH approaches.

Palaeodietary reconstruction of wild and domestic goats using dental microwear texture analysis. A case study from two early Neolithic sites in the southern Levant

ABSTRACT Dental microwear (DMA) is a tool used for the palaeodiet reconstruction of animals in Archaeology. The use of this proxy on domestic ungulates provides valuable information to reconstruct livestock strategies, yet it presents several methodological limitations. Most studies have been carried out using low-magnification DMA and the interpretations often relied on comparisons with databases of extant wild ungulates. In addition, several studies have highlighted challenges in discerning diets in extant domestic caprines. In parallel, dental microwear texture analysis (DMTA) – a quantitative methodology based on 3D micro-texture height maps – has shown better discrimination. In this paper, we explore the capacity to distinguish four different management strategies of domestic goats (Capra hircus) and three species of wild ibexes (Capra nubiana, C. pyrenaica and C. ibex) using DMTA. Results revealed good discrimination among extant domestic goat populations and between wild and domestic goats. This new dataset was subsequently used to characterise the palaeodiet of archaeological goats from two Pre-Pottery Neolithic B sites in the southern Levant. Preliminary findings suggest evidence of human intervention in goats at least during the early 8th millennium BCE. In addition, incorporating various current management strategies has enhanced our understanding of early goat domestication in southern Levant.

The Indo-Iranian Approach to Greater Iran

ABSTRACT With an origin in western Eurasia, the Indo-Iranian languages appeared in Greater Iran and beyond in the second millennium and were expressed widely in the first millennium BCE. Considering an early separation of Proto-Iranian from the Proto-Indo-Iranian linguistic core, Eurasian archaeological cultures affiliated with Indo-Iranians are revisited. While the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures, along with the Alakul Andronovo cultural complex, are plausible reflections of the Proto-Indo-Aryans, the situation is more complex for the Proto-Iranians who later shaped the cultures of the Scythians and Iranians of Greater Iran. Tracing the origins of these Proto-Iranians in the Inner Asian Mountain Corridor and Central Asia, their possible expansion into Greater Iran, partly separated from the Proto-Indo-Aryan path, is demonstrated. An Iranian-speaking group in Transoxiana, distinct from the Iranians of Greater Iran, is also discussed with the Proto-Iranian affiliated Timber Grave culture of western Eurasia as one of its possible components.