Military Missions Research Articles

Exercising Cultural Diplomacy as a Form of Smart Power in the Military Operating Environment

Abstract Cultural diplomacy also manifests itself in the military context, where military activity and behavior in the strategic space approaches actions in the diplomatic domain. This article provides an overview of the current debates in this evolving field, exploring different diplomatic perspectives in the military’s management of international relations in different military missions. Based on the most recent literature on cultural diplomacy in the military operational environment, in order to understand how the military interacts with the local population in a society where it conducts peacekeeping or peace-enforcement operations, it is useful to analyze the strategies employed and to assess the consistency of these activities with the classic definitions of public diplomacy. In order to achieve the proposed objectives, a careful analysis of the definition of the concept of diplomacy is carried out through the understanding of its two forms: cultural diplomacy and public diplomacy. In order to minimize risks and increase the efficiency of operations, the idea of integrating cultural diplomacy as a smart power in the military operational environment is developed.

Interaction-aware control for robotic vegetation override in off-road environments

Robotic systems tasked with completing off-road economic, military, or humanitarian missions often encounter environmental objects when traversing unstructured terrains. Certain objects (e.g. safety cones) must be avoided to ensure operational integrity, but others (e.g. small vegetation) can be interacted with (e.g. overridden/pushed) safely. Pure object-avoidance assumptions in conventional robotic system navigation policies may lead to inefficient (slow) or overly-cautious (immobilized) traversal behaviors in off-road terrains. To address this gap in system performance, we draw inspiration from existing hybrid dynamic system control literature. We have designed a nonlinear trajectory optimization controller that utilizes vegetation-interaction models as a jump map in the dynamics constraint. In contrast to purely vision-based navigation policies which classify the traversability of obstacles, the allowable subset of objects with which the vehicle can safely interact is now characterized by a data-driven collision model and the existence of a dynamically-feasible trajectory which satisfies the contact constraints. The controller’s capabilities are demonstrated on a full-sized autonomous utility task vehicle where objects including posts and trees of up to 25.4 [mm] and 81.8 [mm] diameter are overridden.

Eye-tracking analysis to assess the mental load of unmanned aerial system operators: systematic review and future directions

Abstract This article presents a systematic review on the use of eye-tracking technology to assess the mental workload of unmanned aircraft system (UAS) operators. With the increasing use of unmanned aircraft in military and civilian operations, understanding the mental workload of these operators has become essential for ensuring mission effectiveness and safety. The review covered 26 studies that explored the application of eye-tracking to capture nuances of visual attention and assess cognitive load in real-time. Traditional methods such as self-assessment questionnaires, although useful, showed limitations in terms of accuracy and objectivity, highlighting the need for advanced approaches like eye-tracking. By analysing gaze patterns in simulated environments that reproduce real challenges, it was possible to identify moments of higher mental workload, areas of concentration and sources of distraction. The review also discussed strategies for managing mental workload, including adaptive design of human-machine interfaces. The analysis of the studies revealed a growing relevance and acceptance of eye-tracking as a diagnostic and analytical tool, offering guidelines for the development of interfaces and training that dynamically respond to the cognitive needs of operators. It was concluded that eye-tracking technology can significantly contribute to the optimisation of UAS operations, enhancing both the safety and efficiency of military and civilian missions.

Emerging technologies in military space operations: current applications and future research for educational and training purposes

ABSTRACT The rapidly evolving domain of military space operations has become increasingly integral to national security and defense strategies. Emerging technologies, including artificial intelligence (AI), simulators and extended reality (XR) tools such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), are revolutionizing how military forces train and operate. These innovations not only enhance the effectiveness of military missions but also necessitate a revaluation of the education and training required for space personnel. This paper explores the current applications of these technologies in military space operations, identifies potential challenges associated with their integration and proposes future research to guide the development of educational and training programs. By examining the historical evolution of military space activities, the roles and activities of space personnel and the integration of advanced technologies, this paper aims to provide an understanding of how emerging technologies are shaping military space operations and the current and future implications for education and training.

The Ordinary Soldier in Military Organization

Abstract Drawing on social psychology, this article raises seemingly counterintuitive questions about international criminal law’s assumptions of human agency in a highly specific social environment. Is military institution hostile to the ‘normative individualism’ underlying international criminal law? If so, is it fair to demand individual criminal responsibility of members of a military organization in the same way as in peacetime situations? This article takes the perspective of an ordinary soldier and asks whether international criminal law is biased in describing causes of atrocities and dispensing solutions. After explicating some assumptions of individual criminal responsibility, it introduces the military organization as a total institution that subsumes individuals. It continues to examine the impact of the military mission and structure on the normative and behavioural competences of the ordinary soldier as a potential perpetrator of war crimes. It then contemplates how such a social environment undermines international criminal law’s fiction of human agency and, ultimately, its normative effect. This article not only invites further legal doctrinal reflections but also contributes to the criminological study of international crimes.

Preparing Military Interprofessional Health Care Teams for Effective Collaboration.

Military Interprofessional Health care Teams (MIHTs) are the backbone of modern military medicine. However, these teams face distinct operational challenges, including frequent personnel rotation, diverse work environments, and the constant possibility of rapid deployment. Serving in dynamic teams that deploy for both military and humanitarian missions, MIHTs face the unique challenge of constant restructuring and reorganization. Consequently, preparing MIHT members to function effectively as a team presents a significant hurdle. This difficulty highlights the limited applicability of existing literature focused on training civilian interprofessional health care teams. To address this gap, we conducted interviews with MIHT members to understand specific training elements that equip MIHT members to effectively collaborate. By gaining a deeper understanding of their needs, we can improve training programs and ultimately optimize MIHT performance, readiness, and patient care. We conducted individual semi-structured interviews with military health care professionals. We employed purposeful sampling to ensure a diverse range of perspectives from individuals with direct experience working in or leading MIHTs. The 30 participants interviewed represented a broad spectrum of MIHT professions. The data used for this study stems from a broader research program on MIHTs conducted between 2017 and 2019. We conducted a secondary analysis focusing specifically on interview data related to education and training. Using Braun and Clarke's 6-step approach to Thematic Analysis, we identified themes from the data to build an understanding of MIHT perspectives on training effectiveness. The participants' insights allowed us to identify 3 critical themes related to the training elements they considered most beneficial for fostering collaboration within MIHTs: (1) MIHT members rely on their own predeployment readiness; (2) MIHT contexts require unique, adaptive communication skills; and (3) MIHT training is an ongoing endeavor. We need our MIHTs to be ready to deploy and effectively collaborate, which involves being clinically, emotionally, physically, and operationally ready. MIHT members describe 3 aspects of specific training elements as having significant potential to equip them to effectively collaborate: (1) MIHT members rely on their own predeployment readiness; (2) MIHT contexts require unique, adaptive communication skills; and (3) MIHT training is an ongoing endeavor at both the individual and team levels. By investing in tailored training programs that address these areas, we can empower MIHTs to continuously adapt, excel, and ultimately, positively impact patient outcomes in diverse military health care settings.

The Journey or the Destination: The Impact of Transparency and Goal Attainment on Trust in Human-Robot Teams

As robots gain autonomy, human-robot task delegation can become more goal-oriented; specifying what to do rather than how. This can lead to unexpected robot behaviour. We investigated the effect of transparency and outcome on the perceived trustworthiness of a robot that deviates from the expected manner to reach a delegated goal. Participants (N = 82) engaged in a virtual military mission as a Human-Robot Team using a 2x2 between-subjects design (low vs. high transparency, positive vs. negative outcome). Participants received training on the expected manner to reach the mission’s goal. In the actual mission, the robot deviated from the planned path. We manipulated whether the robot explained its deviation and whether the outcome was better or worse than the original plan. Results showed that transparency contributed to higher and more stable levels of trust, without increasing subjective workload. While the robot’s deviation led to a violation of trust in the low transparency condition, trust remained stable in the high transparency condition, indicating a buffering effect of transparency on trust in case of unexpected behaviour. The impact of outcome on trust was consistent across transparency conditions. Our findings underscore the role of transparency as a tool for fostering human-robot trust.

Associations Between Sleep Disorders and Treatment Response in Service Members With Post-traumatic Stress Symptoms: A Secondary Outcome Analysis

ABSTRACT Introduction Compared with the civilian population, a higher rate of reported sleep apnea exists among military service members resulting in inadequate sleep. Those who experience chronic sleep deprivation may suffer from debilitating problems that may compromise military mission readiness and unit safety. The purpose of the study on which this secondary outcome analysis was based was to evaluate the effect of manual standardized stress acupuncture as an adjunct therapy to an abbreviated form of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia for sleep disturbances in post-deployment service members. The aim of this secondary outcome analysis was 2-fold: (1) to assess the relationship between sleep disorder symptoms and post-traumatic stress symptoms (PSS) and (2) to determine if the presence of sleep disorder symptoms influenced the effects of acupuncture and cognitive behavioral therapy as compared to cognitive behavior therapy only on PSS) in post-deployment military service members. Materials and Methods The study was a 2-arm, single-center, randomized controlled trial approved by the Naval Medical Center San Diego and the Vanderbilt University Institutional Review Board. It was conducted at the U.S. Naval Hospital in Okinawa, Japan. Participants were active duty service members from all military branches who were stationed in Okinawa. Two measures were used to analyze the data: the Global Sleep Assessment Questionnaire (GSAQ) and the Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist. A Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to determine the relationship between sleep disorder symptoms (i.e., 11 pre-intervention GSAQ symptoms) and PSS treatment outcomes (i.e., PCL and PTSD clusters). Results Results indicated associations between the GSAQ components and PCL total and PTSD cluster scores. Findings showed that the presence of sleep disorder symptoms influenced PSS treatment response in post-deployment military service members. Conclusions Results from this secondary outcome analysis showed associations between GSAQ components (i.e., excessive daytime sleepiness, working conditions causing inadequate sleep, involuntary movements in sleep, and sadness or anxiousness) and PCL total and PTSD cluster scores (i.e., avoidance, negative cognition and mood, avoidance, and hyperarousal). Furthermore, sleep disorder symptoms such as having stressful working conditions (e.g., shift work), probable obstructive sleep apnea, insomnia, anxiety, and depression influenced PSS treatment responses. This study provided information on the major contribution of sleep disorder symptoms in the treatment of PSS through self-report. Future researchers should consider the use of physiologic measures to further understand the mechanisms of how sleep disorder symptoms affect treatment responses in service members with PSS. Implications for this study may assist clinicians in determining effective PSS treatments for those with OSA and insomnia.

Book Review: Dariusz Grala, "The Security of Military Supply Chains" [“Bezpieczeństwo wojskowych łańcuchów dostaw”], Academy of War Studies Publishing House, Warsaw 2024, ISBN 978-83-8263-503-4, pp. 326.

A new monograph titled "The Security of Military Supply Chains" has emerged in the publishing market, released in 2024 by the Academy of War Studies Publishing House (ISBN 978-83-8263-503-4). This publication spans 326 pages and represents a significant contribution to Polish scientific literature, as the subject matter has not been analysed in such a comprehensive manner until now. The Author of the book is Dariusz Grala, a Colonel in the Polish Army, a Doctor of Engineering, and the current Dean of the Faculty of Management and Command at the Academy of War Studies. The monograph introduces the reader to an extensive, erudite discourse at the intersection of political science research, security studies, and management and quality. The Author meticulously and logically discusses areas related to the security of military supply chains, which have previously been underexplored in the literature. The term "security" is understood here in various contexts, encompassing both states and processes that influence military supply chains. The Author highlights their role as a set of cooperating structures aimed at delivering goods essential for the execution of military training operations, operational activities, and combat missions. The literature often encounters the term "defence sector supply chains"; however, in the military context, the perspective on the functioning of these supply chains has a broader and often sensitive significance. This "sensitive" nature of the security of military supply chains —understood from the intentions expressed in the Introduction — has become the subject of the Author's research, which integrates theories and practices from military logistics and supply chain management. The considerations focus on the processes occurring within these chains under various conditions. This approach is particularly important in the realm of security and defence, as civil supply chain publications often overlook, assuming it to be self-evident, the specific security considerations related to military needs. This publication, in a sense, bridges these two worlds.

SOME ASPECTS OF ACTIONS TO RESPONSE TO EXTERNAL SECURITY THREATS AND CRISES OF THE EUROPEAN UNION

The European Union is taking action in various areas of security to improve its ability to respond to crises and increase its resilience to future challenges, so this article examines the evolution of crisis response actions of the European Union countries in the face of challenges and threats in a rapidly changing geopolitical environment in relation to European security. This, in turn, is reflected in the speed of decision-making by the competent associations of the European Union regarding legal regulation that corresponds to the current situation. The authors identify and analyze the main directions of action and response measures of member countries in the legal field. In this context, the authors pay special attention to the consideration of the European Union's security policy in relation to hybrid threats from neighboring states, ensuring cyber security, the use of modern information communication technologies, as well as mediation tools in the prevention of these threats. The authors analyze issues of cooperation between the European Union and the United Nations in the field of peacekeeping and military missions. The authors also touched on the specifics of lessons learned from addressing the consequences of crisis situations and the impact of the EU countries’ integrated approach to responding to crisis situations in the context of the past pandemic, as well as the impact of hybrid threats. The results of this study show that the relevant institutions of the European Union skillfully, promptly and effectively coordinate decision-making on response and management in crisis situations, and as part of improving the anti-crisis management strategy, taking measures to prevent the consequences of crisis situations in the EU area (hybrid threats, illegal migration, terrorism, organized crime, etc.)

Statistical reliability estimation of space launch vehicles: 2000–2022

This research examines the reliability of space launch vehicles (SLVs) performing commercial, civil, and military space lift missions through trend analysis and a variety of statistical methods. Data sets obtained from the Seradata database are analyzed for trends by examining data subsets including launch date, sector (commercial, civil or military), launch country, intended mission orbit, SLV family, and failed subsystem. Evolving, time-dependent first-level Bayesian success rate analysis is performed to assess SLV reliability and performance trends on 1873 launches occurring during the period 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2022. It was determined that even with a near-exponential increase in launch events in the 2020s, the number of failures is less than 6% each year, with the average success rate being 95% annually. Overall, 56% of launches were sent into low Earth orbit (LEO) and 32% were sent into geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) or geostationary Earth orbit (GSO). Although SLVs servicing missions to these orbital regimes featured success rates above 92%, LEO launches accounted for approximately 73% of total launch failures, while GEO-GSO launches accounted for 18% of failures. Specifically looking at U.S. and Russian SLV families, the main subsystem responsible for failure was propulsion, which accounted for 72.3% of 47 reported launch failures. First-level and second-level (using method of moments) Bayesian techniques were performed on 37 launch vehicle families and it was found that vehicles with a high accrual of launches performed with a higher reliability than vehicles with a low number of launches, resulting in first-level success rates of greater than 90%.

Energy expenditure during physical work in cold environments: physiology and performance considerations for military service members.

Effective execution of military missions in cold environments requires highly trained, well-equipped, and operationally ready service members. Understanding the metabolic energetic demands of performing physical work in extreme cold conditions is critical for individual medical readiness of service members. In this narrative review, we describe 1) the extreme energy costs of performing militarily relevant physical work in cold environments, 2) key factors specific to cold environments that explain these additional energy costs, 3) additional environmental factors that modulate the metabolic burden, 4) medical readiness consequences associated with these circumstances, and 5) potential countermeasures to be developed to aid future military personnel. Key characteristics of the cold operational environment that cause excessive energy expenditure in military personnel include thermoregulatory mechanisms, winter apparel, inspiration of cold air, inclement weather, and activities specific to cold weather. The combination of cold temperatures with other environmental stressors, including altitude, wind, and wet environments, exacerbates the overall metabolic strain on military service members. The high energy cost of working in these environments increases the risk of undesirable consequences, including negative energy balance, dehydration, and subsequent decrements in physical and cognitive performance. Such consequences may be mitigated by the application of enhanced clothing and equipment design, wearable technologies for biomechanical assistance and localized heating, thermogenic pharmaceuticals, and cold habituation and training guidance. Altogether, the reduction in energy expenditure of modern military personnel during physical work in cold environments would promote desirable operational outcomes and optimize the health and performance of service members.

A Aviação no Campo dos Afonsos no período entreguerras:

This work deals with the beginnings of the aviation school in Campo dos Afonsos, Rio de Janeiro between 1920 and 1940. Military aviation in Brazil, during this period, was part of the Navy and Army. The aviation school in Campo dos Afonsos developed with the instruction of the French Military Mission (MMF), hired by the federal government to instruct the Brazilian Army. In this way, the Military Aviation Mission instructed the Brazilian pilots, sold war material and mainly competed in the international market for the sale of airplanes to Brazil, mainly with the United States, Italy, Germany and England. The Campo dos Afonsos aviation school was the mainstay of national military aviation and represents the framework for the technical and doctrinal training of Brazilian Air Force pilots.

Study of the effects of shallow-buried charge parameters on the lower limb injuries of occupant in special vehicle body

In the process of military missions, special vehicles often encounter shallow buried charge threats that will greatly affect the safety of the occupants. To study the integrated effects of shallow buried charge detonation point, height-to-diameter ratio, burial inclination, weight, and other key parameters on the lower limb injuries of occupant, this study was based on the special body of a shallow buried explosive test and numerical calculation methods. The reliability of the numerical model and the load effect mechanism of the shallow burial charge were studied. Based on this, the lower limb injuries response law of occupant was analyzed with respect to each parameter. The results showed that the bottom charge load mainly came from two-stage ejection loading, in which the first stage was a strong load with short-duration local impact loading and the second stage was a weak load with long-duration extended range loading. By comparing the lower limb injury response of occupant under different charge parameters, we found that the weight of charge had the greatest effect on the extent of occupant injury, followed by the height-to-diameter ratio and burial inclination, while the detonation position had a relatively small effect on the injury magnitude. Finally, a comprehensive prediction model of the lower limb injuries of occupant was obtained by using the Latin hypercube sampling method and the least-squares method, and it was verified that the model had a good matching accuracy.

Mahanian Thinking: Rising Navalism of China in the Indo-Pacific Region

As China has grown economically, so has its military power developed and by design. China has invested heavily in the Navy and shipping industries along with related infrastructure around its neighbourhood and beyond. China’s immediate concerns were the sea routes in the Indo-Pacific region, which they started dominating by buying shares in seaports and investing in shipping infrastructure in coastal cities, which is projecting a soft image but according to speculation, it can be quickly upgraded to carry out any military mission. The study is taking qualitative and quantitative data. The study also highlights the Chinese naval expansion and its comparison with leading navies of the world. The research in this paper is carried out by keeping in view the impact of Alfred Thayer Mahan’s theories on Chinese strategists in the context of China’s increasing Navalism in the Indo-Pacific region.

Out of sight, out of mind? The bipartisan Australian foreign policy on irregular migration

ABSTRACT Australian foreign policy traditionally claims middle power and good international citizenship credentials, although it also resorts to unilateral actions due to its deep-rooted condition of ‘frightened country’. This article argues that the country's irregular migration governance embodies this tension, and thus seeks to shed light on this increasingly-neglected aspect of Australian external engagement. Following a theoretical understanding of Australian foreign policy, it investigates the country's irregular migration policies between 2000 and 2024. The article finds that there is a strong continuity in such policies irrespective of the type of government in power, supported by foreign policy bipartisanship, resulting in specific foreign policy tools to stem seaborne arrivals. These include military missions; territorial excisions from the migration zone; offshore processing and/or externalisation agreements with Nauru, Papua New Guinea, Cambodia, and Sri Lanka; pushback manoeuvres, and at-sea processing of asylum claims. Inevitably, such measures complicate Australia's international status as they emphasise the uneasy coexistence of both the globalist middle power and the self-interested nation images in its foreign policy, therefore warranting new research on this under-examined condition.

Navigating Trust: The Interplay of Trust in Automation and Team Communication in an Extended Simulated Military Mission

Trust in automation and team communication are crucial factors in human-agent teaming. While research has examined how trust in automation and team dynamics impact performance separately, less is known about how they combine to influence team dynamics. This study investigated how team speech dynamics are related to trust in automation, team perceptions, and workload in the context of a longitudinal multi-participant computer simulated military mission using active-duty military personnel. Results showed that participants with lower trust in automation spoke more than their teammates with higher trust in automation, even after controlling for perceptions of team trust, cooperation, workload, role on the team, and team performance. A common finding in the team literature is that more team communication and more trust in automation are, separately, better for team performance. Thus, this research is an initial step toward demonstrating how automation alters the team dynamics typically considered essential to their success.

Descriptive analysis of diseases, non-battle injuries and climate among deployed Swedish military personnel

IntroductionHistorically, diseases and non-battle injuries (DNBI) typically stand for 70%‒95% of all medical events during military missions. There is, however, no comprehensive compilation of medical statistics for Swedish soldiers during...

Metamorphoses of superiority: German military missions in the interwar period as a (post)traumatic experience of expansion

Germany’s defeat in the Great War deformed the development of its armed forces, yet did not force it to abandon the idea of revising the Versailles Peace. The sharp reduction of the Reichswehr and the Reichsmarine, as well as political crises, exacerbated the problem of maintaining human resources. One of the tools for its preservation was the resumption of military missions in different forms and on different continents. Both official and unofficial missions, initiated earlier, formed future alliances and made it possible to circumvent many restrictions. Many of the sites of these activities – in the USSR, China, Japan, some Latin American countries – are well known, some remain virtually unknown and their significance is greatly underestimated, e.g. in Finland, Turkey, Iraq, Afghanistan, etc. The circumstances of this activity were shaped by multiple factors and depended on the conjuncture of international relations, as well as on the traditions of co-operation established prior to 1914 and greatly affected by the Great War. The historiography of the problem continues to grow, but concentrates on bilateral relations and lacks comparative approaches. A holistic examination of these German military missions, which is necessary for a proper assessment of this phenomenon in the history of the interwar period, has not yet been undertaken. Despite a number of source-related and historiography-specific problems, the study of German military missions will allow for the development of a number of research directions, including a discussion of continuity in German foreign policy, further development of transnational history, and analysis of the transformation of ideas of superiority and self-identification of European elites.

Classification, military applications, and opportunities of unmanned aerial vehicles

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are cutting-edge technologies used for military purposes world-wide at tactical, operational, and strategic levels. This study provides an overview of the history and current state of military drones, considering a global and Ecuadorian background. Then, a classification of the UAVs developed and built in Ecuador is conducted based on their endurance, altitude, and wing span to understand the national context and progress. The research also delves into the applications of UAVs in several military operations and missions, aiming to create a framework that aligns UAV capabilities with specific operational needs; this permits the identification of the challenges and opportunities the country faces. Unmanned aerial systems have changed the battlefield, and the government needs to adapt to a national strategy that incorporates this technology; this research analyzes and provides insights to improve military capabilities such as exploring modern UAV military applications, technical updates in communication, navigation, and data acquisition systems; and the integration of emerging technologies like smart materials, artificial intelligence, and electric propulsion systems. This study provides valuable insights into the Ecuadorian UAVs that enhance the country’s military operations and offer some applications and uses of this technology for national security.