Military Issues Research Articles

Military social harm: An agenda for research

This article presents a critical framework for understanding the harms produced by military institutions. Assessments of military harms are undertaken across the sociological study of the military, ranging from public-facing military issues to more inwardly directed research conducted by entities with vested state interests. Building upon and advancing the available scholarship, we introduce the concept of ‘military social harm’, drawing on criminological perspectives that situate harm in a broader range of social and political contexts. This term serves as a tool to explore the pervasive and varied impacts of military activities on society, illustrated through an examination of British military compensation as reparation. This example reveals how compensation regimes weaken a holistic approach to reparation, by undermining elements such as a right to truth or efforts to prevent recurrence. We propose an interdisciplinary research agenda for studying military social harm, aiming to challenge and extend existing scrutiny of military institutions and their accountability mechanisms, thereby engendering a fuller understanding of the direct and indirect costs of retaining and deploying military power.

An Exploratory Study of Fact-Checking Practices in Conflict and Authoritarian Contexts

This study explores fact-checking practices in Ethiopia and Mali in times of conflict and in a context marked by increasing restrictions to press freedom. The objective is to understand how, in this hostile environment, fact-checkers in these two countries manage to carry out their activities. Our findings reveal that fact-checkers are often victims of online bullying and harassment and fear reprisal from governments. This pushes them to self-censor, avoiding working on sensitive topics, such as military issues in Mali. In addition, fact-checking organizations in both countries highlight the difficulty of accessing reliable sources. Consequently, they focus more on debunking viral social media content, thus effectively becoming content moderators who have turned away from the mission of holding leaders accountable, one of the primary functions of fact-checking. Regarding their role conception, fact-checkers in Ethiopia and Mali see themselves more as guides helping navigate the information disorder than “guardians of truth” or “truth keepers.”

A Criminological–Military Enterprise

Abstract This article builds upon, and extends, critiques of British criminology’s enterprising collaboration with state-based institutions. Through an investigation of the discipline’s discreet contribution to the UK military ‘knowledge economy’ (Catignani and Basham 2021), criminological research is revealed as having the capacity to insulate the British military from critique and depoliticize military violence. Informed by criminological and critical military studies scholarship, the ‘criminological–military enterprise’ is introduced into academic discourse. This term offers a critical analysis of the discipline’s contemporary ‘blended’ (Shields 2024) research with the British military estate, provides ‘enriched reflexive’ (Danielsson 2022) problems for critical scholars to contemplate, and calls for a (re)politicization of military issues within criminological research.

Gas and particle emissions from rifle and pistol firing

Emissions were sampled from firing an M4 carbine rifle and a M9 (military issue of Beretta 75 FS 9 mm pistol) to develop sampling methods and assess potential exposures and range contamination issues. Breech and muzzle emissions were sampled from the rifle when firing M855A1 ammunition (lead (Pb)-free slugs) in single- and triple-shot burst mode and from single pistol shots when firing 9 mm XM1152 ammunition (not Pb-free). Emissions were sampled for carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, particulate matter by size, polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons, and volatile organics. Analyses on the particles included elemental composition, size distribution, carbon composition (black, total, organic, and elemental carbon), and particle composition and morphology. Emission concentrations from both the rifle and pistol were characterized by CO/CO2 ratios between, approximately, 1/1 and 2/1, respectfully, indicating incomplete carbon oxidation. The initial particle size distribution was dominated in number by particles smaller than 40 nm but the high particle concentrations led to rapid agglomeration. The abundance of CO and metals of inhalable particle size are noteworthy and indicate that further assessment of exposure would determine potential inhalation health hazards, particularly in indoor firing ranges.

The Role of the Supreme Defense Council of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the Aggression against the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina

In this paper, we analyze the role and activities of the Supreme Defense Council (SDC) of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) according to the Constitution of FRY from 1992. The decision to establish the FRY, encompassing Serbia and Montenegro, as well as the provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina, represented a continuation of the political and territorial restructuring of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRJ), as well as a basis for further military and political actions aimed at realizing expansionist project. Through the establishment of the SDC and its role in managing the military, especially during the period of aggression, it is evident how political decisions directly influenced military operations, as well as the international position and sanctions that followed in response to the aggressive policy of the FRY. SDC sessions were important for making decisions on military issues, including the appointment, promotion, and dismissal of officers, as well as decisions on military activities. Analysis of SDC session transcripts reveals details about FRY's military involvement in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the formation of the so-called Army of Republika Srpska (VRS). SDC members, the President of FRY, and the Presidents of Serbia and Montenegro, along with other attendees including the Minister of Defense and the Chief of the General Staff of the Yugoslav Army (VJ), actively participated in military matters and decision-making. This paper also explores the role of FRY in the wars in the former Yugoslavia during the early 1990s, with a particular focus on its relationship with the self-proclaimed Republika Srpska (RS) and participation in the aggression against the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Through the lens of logistical, military, and comprehensive support provided by FRY, including attempts to conceal the involvement of military personnel through the 30th Personnel Center, we shed light on its direct involvement in military operations that had a decisive impact on the course of the war. Despite efforts to conceal the role of FRY and its structures in the aggression against the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, documents and SDC transcripts reveal enough evidence confirming FRY's crucial role in the preparation, support, and execution of aggression against the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina through RS. The SDC organized and supported activities aimed at supporting the VRS and other military formations, often with a conspiratorial approach. Discussions at SDC sessions covered funding for the VRS, logistics, organization of soldier training, and defense strategy. Military operations, as well as political and military relations within Bosnia and Herzegovina, were particularly analyzed. „Controversial topics“ such as arming the population in Serbia and crimes committed against Bosniaks in Sandžak and Bosnia and Herzegovina were also discussed at the sessions. Relations with the political leaderships of RS and the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK), as well as reactions to losses and defeats, were also important topics at SDC sessions. The sessions also included analysis of political and military events and presentations of the views of FRY President Slobodan Milošević on peace negotiations, military operations, and territorial goals achieved. SDC transcripts provide insight into Slobodan Milošević's acknowledgment of the involvement of the State Security Service (SDB) in the formation, arming, and support of „paramilitary units“ sent to Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. In addition to the direct involvement of VJ in the aggression, plans for joint military operations were extensively documented, aiming to create a „united state of the Serbian people“. Key figures, such as Ratko Mladić, who were in VRS, remained members of VJ even after the aggression. The SDC continued to exist until 2001 but lost its significance compared to the period from its establishment to the end of 1995.

Unilateral Sanctions under International Law and Effectiveness of Blocking

INTRODUCTION. This article discusses modern international legal concept of unilateral sanctions. The authors contribute to the emerging discussion on the qualifying of unilateral sanctions under international law.MATERIALS AND METHODS. In this study we took into account the works of both Russian and foreign scholars in the field of international economic law, as well as analyzed documents and materials of international organizations (United Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO) and others) in order to assess the compatibility of unilateral sanctions with international law. General scientific methods of cognition (analysis, synthesis, induction, and deduction), special legal methods (formal-legal, technical-legal, method of legal analogy) and comparative legal method were used in the presented research.RESEARCH RESULTS. Presented analysis has shown that widely used term “unilateral sanctions” leads to abusive and inappropriate use of international legal term. Analysis of compatibility of unilateral sanctions with other types of coercive measures such as countermeasures, UN Security Council sanctions, retortions, reprisals have shown that unilateral sanctions do not fall under the meaning of all mentioned measures. In addition, unilateral sanctions should not be justified under the WTO security exceptions. The use of extraterritorial unilateral sanctions contradicts one of the fundamental principles of international law – principle of non-interference in internal affairs. Existing blocking unilateral sanctions mechanisms are not efficient enough to compensate negative effect posed by unilateral sanctions.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. Authors concluded that unilateral sanctions in most of the cases do not satisfy cumulative criteria of legitimate countermeasure. Unilateral sanctions are not equivalent to the United Nation Security Council sanctions, as there are no “checks and balances” in the decision-making process in the form of determining the degree of threat to peace and security and taking into account humanitarian exceptions. Although there is some correlation between unilateral sanctions and retortions or reprisals, retortions and reprisals posses criteria of legality and proportionality, while, unilateral sanctions are introduced at the state’s discretion without any standard. Furthermore, the authors argue that to avoid abusive use of the WTO security exceptions WTO panels have to rely on the well-balanced approach used by the Panel in Russia – Transit case. This approach shows that the context of security exception should be understood as encompassing only military and closely related to military issues and does not cover political, economic, cultural or any other interests and relations. Existing blocking mechanisms of unilateral sanctions require separate qualification under international law including compatibility with the legitimate countermeasures.

Strengthening the Red army in the proceedings of the all-russia central executive committee and the council of people’s commissars during the Civil war

This article presents the contribution of the All-Russia Central Executive Committee and the Council of People’s Commissars as the highest state authorities in the formation of the military power of the young Soviet Republic. The first experience of making military decisions in the documents of the All-Russia Central Executive Committee and the Council of People’s Commissars on the creation and strengthening of the armed forces of the country is considered. According to the results of the study, the conclusion is made about the role of the All-Russia Central Executive Committee and the Council of People’s Commissars in the development of military issues in the structures of public authorities of the Soviet state in the period of its formation. When writing the article, the author used a number of new, previously unknown to researchers documents stored in the State Archive of the Russian Federation.

Arda ÖZKAN and Göktürk TÜYSÜZOĞLU (ed.), Security Studies: Classic to Post-Modern Approaches (Lanham, Maryland, Lexington Books, 2023)

What kinds of security threats do states currently face in international relations? What areas do security studies cover in the discipline? Contrary to the military security-oriented structure of the Cold War period, the new era requires a more inclusive and alternative approach to security studies due to the effects of globalization. Therefore, many areas that were seen as low politics issues in the early years of the discipline have begun to play an important role in shaping today’s international system and the security perception of states. For someone seeking to answer the above questions, Security Studies: Classic to Post-Modern Approaches, edited by Arda Özkan and Göktürk Tüysüzoğlu, is a good starting point. Within the framework of its eighteen chapters, the book is an important reference that not only deals with the classical approaches of the discipline, such as military issues, but also explores post-modern approaches and contemporary topics, such as energy, environment, migration, and so on.

Issues of state and public administration at the regional level in the context of the subject «Innovation Management»

The issue of public administration at the regional level was considered in the context of the subject «Innovative Management». The development of local self-government is of great importance for Ukraine and its population. The territorial community is the main subject of local self-government, which has its own functions and powers. The main role in management is performed by local self-government bodies that interact with state administrations. Regional military administrations have become key in the system of coordination and management of military issues at the regional level. The public plays a significant role in military administration and ensuring national security through active participation in public administration.

The evolution of ideas about pacifism in the global Pentecostal tradition

The article presents opinions in global Pentecostalism about pacifism and nonviolence. In most European countries and the United States, the topic of pacifism became relevant during the World Wars. Over time, pacifism as a dominant was replaced by the possibility of independent choice of believers in accordance with their convictions of conscience. The Global Pentecostal movement has developed different strategies of action in relation to participation in military operations: from categorical refusal to total acceptance of the need for military service. Those strategies were influenced by changes in the views of religious leaders, and the power position on statements from individual churches. In the Soviet Union, Pentecostals already in the 1920s held loyalist views on the military issue. The Soviet state forced Pentecostals to declare the need to fulfill civic obligations, including with arms in hand. Soviet Pentecostals officially proclaimed the principle of personal responsibility for one’s choices and the need to comply with state laws. In the late Soviet period, for most believers, military service was a way to test the "perseverance of faith" and at the same time demonstrate law-abidingness and inclusion in the life of Soviet society.

STOP ECOCIDE: ‘SHCHEDRYK’ COVER FOR PEACE AND LIFE

The article is devoted to the study of the representation of environmental and military issues in the English-language song text ‘C+arol of the Ecocide’, which is actually a timely cover for the legendary melody ‘Shchedryk’ by an outstanding Ukrainian composer M. Leontovych. In the narrative ‘Carol of the Ecocide’ there are analyzed the depictions of tragic pictures of wartime reality, which appeal to the recipients with a call to stop the death, destruction of the natural environment, which is taking place in Ukraine on a significant scale. It is traced how these lyrics clearly outline the harmful and destructive effects of war on the environment, also called ecocide, which is considered a crime against humanity. The author notes that ‘Carol of the Ecocide’ combines various goals, among which the following stand out: to honor the 100th anniversary of ‘Shchedryk’, and in this way to reactualize the national cultural and historical heritage, which is a fundamental factor in nurturing ethnic identity, which is extremely and crucially important in the fight against colonial enslavement; and call for an end to ecocide as a result of the war in Ukraine. There has been revealed a connection between ‘Shchedryk’ by M. Leontovych and ‘Carol of the Bells’ by P. Wilhousky and ‘Carol of the Ecocide’ by Ye. Matyushenko and Yu. Zvonar. The significance of the cultural sphere for the security and prosperity of the country, state, and nation, as well as for the preservation and cherishing of ethnic identity, is emphasized.

The contribution of public organizations to the creation of the Ukrainian National Army (1989–1991)

This study describes the main processes that took place during 1989–1991 in Ukraine during the creation of the Ukrainian armed forces. The role of the People’s Movement of Ukraine and political parties, in particular the Ukrainian Republican Party, Party of Greens of Ukraine, Ukrainian People’s Democratic Party, and the Democratic Party of Ukraine, in the formation of the Ukrainian army and the influence of these organizations on the processes that contributed to the formation of the Ukrainian armed forces are discussed. The articles published in democratic, central and republican press at the time were analyzed. The study also examines the way in which the events surrounding the creation of the Ukrainian armed forces were portrayed in the media (press). Military issues and the solutions proposed by the Ukrainian military committee (Kharkiv) at the meeting of Democratic Forces (Lviv) and the Second Conference of the People’s Movement of Ukraine were described. The article highlights the achievements of the scientific and theoretical conference of 2–3 February 1991, the Military Board of the People’s Movement of Ukraine, and the First Congress of Officers – citizens of Ukraine (including the most interesting proposals for the formation of the Ukrainian army, as well as other concepts that differed from the recommendations made during the Congress) and their impact on the formation of the Ukrainian National Army.

Military Geography and GeographicalFactor in the Russian War in Ukraine

The article draws attention to the increasing military conflicts and wars at the regional level, as well as the role of geography in their preparation and conduct. Military operations always take place in real time and in real space, therefore, the study of the geographical environment is vital for any socially organized structure that has a military organization (armed forces). Geographical factors (the size of territories, population, relief and landscape features, hydrology and climate, forest cover, and other factors) have long been taken into account when planning and conducting military operations or developing (capturing) new regions. In terms of military geography, geographical knowledge of space, and the necessary scale, provides an understanding of contemporary security issues and promotes the idea that such understanding is critical to understanding and managing significant military issues on a local, regional, and global scale. Attention is drawn to specific methods for the preparation and conduct of military operations—geographic information systems (GIS) in conjunction with aerospace sounding. Without them, modern wars are not produced. The importance of some geographical factors is confirmed by specific examples during the Russian aggression against Ukraine (2014–2023).

THE RELEVANCE OF AUTOMATING THE SCHEDULE OF CLASSES IN HIGHER MILITARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

In the modern world, much attention is paid to the development of information technologies in the XXI century. As the President of our country noted, the formation of a national informatization system and the mass introduction of modern information and communication technologies in all spheres of society requires future specialists to have special knowledge and skills in the field of computer technology. Therefore, algorithmization and programming is of particular importance in the formation of a national informatization system, especially for the prompt resolution of important military issues and their solutions. As already noted, the system of training, advanced training and retraining of military specialists in the field of programming is one of the main tasks today, as well as the development of local computer programs designed to solve military tasks, scheduling classes, automating the educational process as a whole and putting them into practice.

ON THE COVERAGE OF MILITARY ISSUES ON THE PAGES OF THE SOVIET PROVINCIAL PRESS OF THE 1920s (based on the materials of Simbirsk Governorate)

The author focuses on the Red Army of the 1920s. The history of the Armed Forces of our Fatherland in an environment declared as a special military operation in modern Russia seems relevant both for specialists and for everyone interested in military history. The author explores certain aspects of the Red Army’s activities in the context of implementing the military policy in the USSR in 1923–1925. After the end of the Civil War (1918–1922) in Soviet Russia, the Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army (Red Army) objectively needed to be seriously reformed. The very mediocre financial situation in the state did not allow the Soviet authorities to keep under arms a significant number of military personnel who remained after the war. Reformation of the Red Army began in 1923. At first, its number was brought up to 600 thousand people. In addition, in June 1923, the People’s Commissar for Military Affairs L.D. Trotsky decided to transform part of the army into militia units. The fifth part of the Army’s divisions had to undergo this experiment. Thus, eleven divisions received the name of territorial ones. The decree dated August 8, 1923, together with the organization of territorial divisions, determined the order of workers’ military training. Thus, the Red Army began the transition to a territorial-militia system. The novelty of the study lies in the fact that the historical analysis of these events is carried out at the regional level, in particular, on the materials of one of the governorates of the Middle Volga region, which was previously absent.
 
 The purpose of this article is to investigate the coverage of military issues in the provincial periodical press of the first half of the 1920s on the materials of Simbirsk governorate.
 
 Materials and methods. The author uses problem-analytical and chronological research methods, the source base of the work is Simbirsk newspapers dated 1923, as well as memories of the participants to the events.
 
 Study results. The author points out that the largest military unit of Simbirsk garrison was the 2nd Simbirsk Rifle Regiment, which was located in the so-called Uhlan barracks. In one of September issues of the newspaper “Proletarskii put” which is analyzed by a researcher, we find an article about the beginning of conscription in 1923 already under the new rules. The author pays special attention to some aspects in the activities of Simbirsk school of Command Staff (Red Banner Infantry Military School), which carried out a lot of work on recruiting cadets in order to attract working and peasant youth to the Red Army. At the same time, the author tells about the first post – war graduation of the Red commanders in 1923.
 
 Conclusions. The researcher, using the example of Simbirsk governorate, claims that the provincial periodical press of the first half of the 1920s regularly actively discussed military issues. Articles about military reform and everyday life of the Red Army soldiers were systematically published on the pages of leading Simbirsk publications. For example, the daily life of Simbirsk School of command staff very often appeared on the pages of newspapers. We learn a lot of interesting things from the life of the Red Army from publications about combat training in the 2nd Simbirsk regiment. The pages of Simbirsk newspapers also give information on military units located in other regions of the country, in particular in Moscow and the Moscow region, on the Black Sea.

Coins of the Contemporary Period of Afghanistan

The present study aims to know the specifications, minting, and usage of contemporary coins in Afghanistan, which can be an important step in identifying the history of Afghanistan by studying it. Before the appearance of coins, all transactions were done in kind, which was called kind-to-kind exchange or barter. Since the barter exchange was associated with many difficulties and did not provide for the needs of the general public considering the variety of products, advances, and achievements, precious metals such as copper, silver, and gold were traded as a means of exchange, which made the exchange process easier and more effective. This process continued with the minting of coins. In Afghanistan, transactions were started by barter, and different coins were used in different periods. Some of these coins were minted outside the borders of Afghanistan, and some were minted inside the country. In later periods, the kings of Afghanistan's contemporary history, such as Ahmad Shah Abdali, his sons, and descendants, as well as Amanullah Khan, Habibullah Khan Kalkani, Muhammad Nader Khan, Muhammad Zahir Shah, and Muhammad Dawood Khan, also minted coins. In this article, an attempt will be made to identify the coins of the contemporary period of Afghanistan, to analyze the collected materials later, and to provide answers to the questions raised in the research.
 By studying the historical text and the documentary evidence that exists in the archives, museums, and bazaars of the center of Afghanistan, it is clear that the kings of the contemporary history of Afghanistan started minting coins to solve economic problems and issues related to financial issues. Because in the governance of an important part after human power, the issue of economy is very important, it is also clear in the multiplicative process that Afghanistan was in a state of progress at that time compared to the current situation because it solves all its monetary needs by itself, and in the important parts of this land, there was minting, one example of which is currently in Kabul, which people call the machine house, where coins and military issues were made during the modern history of Afghanistan.

War on frames: Text mining of conflict in Russian and Ukrainian news agency coverage on Telegram during the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022

This article discusses the results of verbal framing analysis of the conflict in news published on Telegram channels by the Russian news agency RIA Novosti (RIAN) and the Ukrainian news agency (UNIAN) during the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022. The analysis, using the text mining method, shows differences between how a more authoritarian and more competitive regime uses social media to construct strategic narratives. RIAN benefits from a technical frame that has not changed throughout the war although the reality on the ground has been evolving dramatically. It focuses on military issues and international rivalry (e.g. sanctions) because the Kremlin focuses on it. UNIAN, on the other hand, uses the moralizing frame of conflict which is more flexible and has been developed in response to changes on the ground – from discussions about the possibility of the invasion to humanitarian tragedy to war crimes, and to creating a more essentialized image of the enemy (‘rashists’).

Towards an Antarctic security and defense forum

ABSTRACT As earth’s lone uninhabited and ungoverned continent, Antarctica contains 70% of all fresh water on the planet in addition to a potential treasure trove of yet undiscovered natural and biological resources1. It is peripherally relevant geographically but centrally relevant geopolitically. The southernmost continent is the final frontier of 21st century strategic competition; a resource-rich region ripe for territorial expansion opportunities that may yield economic and even military advantage for those states best positioned to capitalise on its vulnerability. To avoid Antarctica devolving into a militarised continent plagued by conflict and resource wars, the international community must establish an Antarctic Security and Defense Forum (ASDF). The ASDF will address these challenges through coordinated global governance initiatives leveraging the longstanding institutional strength of the Antarctic Treaty and offering supplemental dialogue specific to military issues to confront the challenge rather than look the other way. This article examines the leading geostrategic issues for Antarctica, then it tables a blueprint for a viable Antarctic Security and Defence Forum.

U.S. INSTITUTIONS’ ENGAGEMENT IN THE EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM - AN UNCONVENTIONAL PATH IN THE WAR CONTEXT (1954-1975)

Whether it comes from the desire to build a solid pro-American government in South Vietnam of the United States or from the aspiration for independent development of the Republic of Vietnam government, we can see that the two governments, the United States and the Republic of Vietnam, did cooperate in developing civil affairs, such as education, rather than solely focused on military issues during wartime. This study by analyzing the involvement of U.S. institutions in the education of the Republic of Vietnam in the years 1954-1975 with three studied cases: SEADAG, The Center for Vietnamese Studies and Programs at Southern Illinois University, and the Asia Foundation, not only contributes to pointing out the characteristics of the United States - Republic of Vietnam’s cooperation in education in the twentieth century but also provides an opportunity to gain a deeper understanding about South Vietnam in another face of the war. Based on research findings, this study also hopes to review trends and lessons learned in building cooperative relations between two countries.

Zapomniana czy przejęta wojna? Uwagi wokół książki Davida Cheng Changa The Hijacked War. The Story of Chinese POWs in the Korean War

Forgotten or hijacked war? Remarks on book by David Cheng Chang The Hijacked War. The Story of Chinese POWs in the Korean War The paper discusses the book entitled The Hijacked War. The Story of Chinese POWs in the Korean War by David Cheng Chang (Stanford University Press, Stanford 2020, pp. 476). The critical analysis of Cheng Chang’s work situates the book in a new trend seen among western historians interested in the Korean War, which is the tendency to focus on prisoners of war instead of focusing only on the political and military issues of the conflict. Cheng Chang claims that a few thousand Chinese non-communist POWs forced many fellow prisoners held in captivity by United Nations Command to oppose repatriation to the People’s Republic of China and, in the aftermath, those determined POWs “hijacked” the war. This was possible because their stance encouraged the Americans to propose voluntary repatriation. To the Americans’ surprise, the Communists refused to accept it, and the war waged on for more than one year longer. The paper underlines the main thesis by Cheng Chang and points out the most valuable information provided by the historian that contributes to a deepening of our knowledge and understanding of the Korean War. Moreover, the paper indicates that there are a few minor disadvantages in Cheng Chang’s study, such as the short description of the so-called explanations and interviews conducted under the supervision of the Neutral Nations Repatriation Commission between October 1953 and January 1954. This is a gap that could be filled, for example, after studying Polish and Czech archival diplomatic and intelligence documents.