Military Critical Care Research Articles

Strengthening the Psychological Health and Readiness of Military Critical Care Nurses for Disaster and Future Combat Environments.

Critical care nursing is a highly dynamic and demanding field, and critical care nurses play a vital role in the US military health care system. Although many critical care nurses are resilient to myriad occupational exposures, for some nurses the job leads to adverse psychological effects, including compassion fatigue and burnout. This article describes the evidence used to develop a psychoeducation program designed to mitigate burnout among health care professionals, particularly critical care nurses. Implementation considerations (including those in the context of disaster response) and future battlefield are discussed. Ultimately, supporting the psychological health of the US military's critical care nurse force is vital to ensure their well-being, the readiness of our armed forces, and the security of our nation.

Using a Military-Civilian Partnership to Enhance Clinical Readiness and Sustainment for Air Force Critical Care Nurses.

Decreases in size, capability, clinical volumes, case mixes, and complex care opportunities in military treatment facilities contribute to the atrophy of clinical skills among medical professionals in these facilities. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a 39% decline in admissions to a military critical care unit. The decrease in patient census contributed to skill sustainment challenges. To identify methods to combat skill atrophy, the CINAHL and PubMed databases were searched using the terms peacetime effect, military-civilian partnership, and skill sustainment. Active-duty critical care nurses stationed at a military treatment facility implemented a military-civilian partnership with a civilian medical facility for clinical skill sustainment. One year after implementation, 39 critical care nurses had completed 511 shifts, gaining clinical experiences seldom achieved at the military facility. A survey of these nurses demonstrated that 8 of 17 (47%) gained experience treating patients requiring intra-aortic balloon pumps or continuous renal replacement therapy, 6 of 17 (36%) gained experience with patients requiring a ventricular assist device, 12 of 17 (71%) acquired hands-on experience with intracranial pressure monitoring, and 14 of 17 (82%) reported vasoactive intravenous infusion manipulation. This article highlights the importance of evaluating clinical practice within the military health system, developing military-civilian partnerships, and removing military-civilian partnership barriers for nurses and other health care professionals. Failure to implement military-civilian partnerships may adversely affect the clinical competency of the military nurse force.

Identifying and Reducing Insulin Errors in the Simulated Military Critical Care Air Transport Environment: A Human Factors Approach.

During high-fidelity simulations in the Critical Care Air Transport (CCAT) Advanced course, we identified a high frequency of insulin medication errors and sought strategies to reduce them using a human factors approach. Of 169 eligible CCAT simulations, 22 were randomly selected for retrospective audio-video review to establish a baseline frequency of insulin medication errors. Using the Human Factors Analysis Classification System, dosing errors, defined as a physician ordering an inappropriate dose, were categorized as decision-based; administration errors, defined as a clinician preparing and administering a dose different than ordered, were categorized as skill-based. Next, 3 a priori interventions were developed to decrease the frequency of insulin medication errors, and these were grouped into 2 study arms. Arm 1 included a didactic session reviewing a sliding-scale insulin (SSI) dosing protocol and a hands-on exercise requiring all CCAT teams to practice preparing 10 units of insulin including a 2-person check. Arm 2 contained arm 1 interventions and added an SSI cognitive aid available to students during simulation. Frequency and type of insulin medication errors were collected for both arms with 93 simulations for arm 1 (January-August 2021) and 139 for arm 2 (August 2021-July 2022). The frequency of decision-based and skill-based errors was compared across control and intervention arms. Baseline insulin medication error rates were as follows: decision-based error occurred in 6/22 (27.3%) simulations and skill-based error occurred in 6/22 (27.3%). Five of the 6 skill-based errors resulted in administration of a 10-fold higher dose than ordered. The post-intervention decision-based error rates were 9/93 (9.7%) and 23/139 (2.2%), respectively, for arms 1 and 2. Compared to baseline error rates, both arm 1 (P = .04) and arm 2 (P < .001) had a significantly lower rate of decision-based errors. Additionally, arm 2 had a significantly lower decision-based error rate compared to arm 1 (P = .015). For skill-based preparation errors, 1/93 (1.1%) occurred in arm 1 and 4/139 (2.9%) occurred in arm 2. Compared to baseline, this represents a significant decrease in skill-based error in both arm 1 (P < .001) and arm 2 (P < .001). There were no significant differences in skill-based error between arms 1 and 2. This study demonstrates the value of descriptive error analysis during high-fidelity simulation using audio-video review and effective risk mitigation using training and cognitive aids to reduce medication errors in CCAT. As demonstrated by post-intervention observations, a human factors approach successfully reduced decision-based error by using didactic training and cognitive aids and reduced skill-based error using hands-on training. We recommend the development of a Clinical Practice Guideline including an SSI protocol, guidelines for a 2-person check, and a cognitive aid for implementation with deployed CCAT teams. Furthermore, hands-on training for insulin preparation and administration should be incorporated into home station sustainment training to reduced medication errors in the operational environment.

Impact of Rank, Provider Specialty, and Unit Sustainment Training Frequency on Military Critical Care Air Transport Team Readiness.

The Critical Care Air Transport (CCAT) Advanced Course utilizes fully immersive high-fidelity simulations to assess personnel readiness for deployment. This study aims to determine whether simple well-defined demographic identifiers can be used to predict CCAT students' performance at CCAT Advanced. CCAT Advanced student survey data and course status (pass/fail) between March 2006 and April 2020 were analyzed. The data included students' Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC), military status (active duty and reserve/guard), CCAT deployment experience (yes/no), prior CCAT Advanced training (yes/no), medical specialty, rank, and unit sustainment training frequency (never, frequency less often than monthly, and frequency at least monthly). Following descriptive analysis and comparative tests, multivariable regression was used to identify the predictors of passing the CCAT Advanced course for each provider type. A total of 2,576 student surveys were analyzed: 694 (27%) physicians (MDs), 1,051 (40%) registered nurses (RNs), and 842 (33%) respiratory therapists (RTs). The overall passing rates were 92.2%, 90.3%, and 85.4% for the MDs, RNs, and RTs, respectively. The students were composed of 579 (22.5%) reserve/guard personnel, 636 (24.7%) with CCAT deployment experience, and 616 (23.9%) with prior CCAT Advanced training. Regression analysis identified groups with lower odds of passing; these included (1) RNs who promoted from Captain to Major (post-hoc analysis, P = .03), (2) RTs with rank Senior Airman, as compared to Master Sergeants (post-hoc analysis, P = .04), and (3) MDs with a nontraditional AFSC (P = .0004). Predictors of passing included MDs and RNs with CCAT deployment experience, odds ratio 2.97 (P = .02) and 2.65 (P = .002), respectively; and RTs who engaged in unit CCAT sustainment at least monthly (P = .02). The identifiers prior CCAT Advanced training or reserve/guard military status did not confer a passing advantage. Our main result is that simple readily available metrics available to unit commanders can identify those members at risk for poor performance at CCAT Advanced readiness training; these include RNs with rank Major or above, RTs with rank Senior Airman, and RTs who engage in unit sustainment training less often than monthly. Finally, MD specialties which are nontraditional for CCAT have significantly lower CCAT Advanced passing rates, reserve/guard students did not outperform active duty students, there was no difference in the performance between different RN specialties, and for MD and RN students' previous deployment experience was a strong predictor of passing.

Lessons From COVID-19 for the Next War: Crisis Standards of Care in the Role 3 Intensive Care Unit.

The rationing of medical resources became a common practice during the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic. To cope with overwhelming patient numbers, hospitals were forced to adopt "crisis standards of care" (CSC) guidelines, which allow physicians to navigate the task of rationing health care resources in both an effective and ethically sound manner. The Military Health System currently has clinical guidelines for mass casualty incident (MCI) triage but lacks deployed Role 3 intensive care unit (ICU) CSC guidelines. In future peer and near-peer conflicts, this gap may prove detrimental when thousands of casualties following a single battle create a continuous and prolonged mass casualty event. The challenges of providing critical care in a battlefield hospital during a large conflict are unique and numerous, but lessons from COVID-19 ICUs such as transitioning to a utilitarian ethic, clear definitions, decision points, and decision authorities, as well as the establishment of clinical practice guidelines formulated from evidence-based protocols, can better prepare the U.S. expeditionary medical force for future conflicts. A battlefield CSC will allow military critical care physicians and nurses to manage overwhelmed ICUs and make better triage decisions, allowing them to provide a higher quality of care to the collective. In this commentary, we explore the need for Wartime CSC in the battlefield Role 3 ICU and the tools and methods used by civilian and military institutions to create and enact CSCs throughout the COVID-19 pandemic.

Adaptation and Testing of a Military Version of the Measure of Moral Distress for Healthcare Professionals.

Moral distress is well-documented among civilian critical care nurses and adversely affects patient outcomes, care delivery, and retention of health care providers. Despite its recognized significance, few studies have addressed moral distress in military critical care nurses. To refine and validate an instrument to assess moral distress in military critical care nurses. This study examined moral distress in military critical care nurses (N = 245) using a new instrument, the Measure of Moral Distress for Healthcare Professionals-Military (MMD-HP-M). The psychometric properties of the refined scale were assessed by use of descriptive statistics, tests of reliability and validity, exploratory factor analysis, correlations, and qualitative analysis of open-ended responses. Initial testing showed promising evidence of instrument performance. The Cronbach α (0.94) suggested good internal consistency of the instrument for the overall sample. Scores for the MMD-HP items and the MMD-HP-M items showed a strong, significant correlation (α= 0.78, P < .001). Unique attributes of military nursing that contribute to moral distress included resource access, futile care, and austere conditions. Exploratory factor analysis established a new military-centric factor for question items associated with inadequate training for patient care, providing care in resource-limited settings, and personal exhaustion. These results will help guide specific, targeted interventions to reduce the negative effects of moral distress on our military health care providers, especially in terms of readiness for the next global pandemic and retention of these invaluable personnel.

Relevance of Deployment Experience and Clinical Practice Characteristics on Military Critical Care Air Transport Team Readiness: A Study of Simulation Construct Validity.

The Critical Care Air Transport Team (CCATT) Advanced course utilizes fully immersive high-fidelity simulations to train CCATT personnel and assess their readiness for deployment. This study aims to (1) determine whether these simulations correctly discriminate between students with previous deployment experience ("experienced") and no deployment experience ("novices") and (2) examine the effects of students' clinical practice environment on their performance during training simulations. Critical Care Air Transport Team Advanced student survey data and course status (pass/no pass) between March 2006 and April 2020 were analyzed. The data included students' specialty, previous exposure to the CCATT Advanced course, previous CCATT deployment experience, years in clinical practice (<5, 5-15, and >15 years), and daily practice of critical care (yes/no), as well as a description of the students' hospital to include the total number of hospital (<100, 100-200, 201-400, and >400) and intensive care unit (0, 1-10, 11-20, and >20) beds. Following descriptive analysis and comparative tests, multivariable regression was used to identify the predictors of passing the CCATT Advanced course. A total of 2,723 surveys were analyzed: 841 (31%) were physicians (MDs), 1,035 (38%) were registered nurses, and 847 (31%) were respiratory therapists (RTs); 641 (24%) of the students were repeating the course for sustainment training and 664 (24%) had previous deployment experience. Grouped by student specialty, the MDs', registered nurses', and RTs' pass rates were 92.7%, 90.6%, and 85.6%, respectively. Multivariable regression results demonstrated that deployment experience was a robust predictor of passing. In addition, the >15 years in practice group had a 47% decrease in the odds of passing as compared to the 5 to 15 years in practice group. Finally, using MDs as the reference, the RTs had a 61% decrease in their odds of passing. The daily practice of critical care provided a borderline but nonsignificant passing advantage, whereas previous CCATT course exposure had no effect. Our primary result was that the CCATT Advanced simulations that are used to evaluate whether the students are mission ready successfully differentiated "novice" from "experienced" students; this is consistent with valid simulation constructs. Finally, novice CCATT students do not sustain their readiness skills during the period between mandated refresher training.

Erratum: A Tool Adaptation Workshop for Moral Distress in Military Critical Care Nurses.

Erratum: A Tool Adaptation Workshop for Moral Distress in Military Critical Care Nurses.

A Tool Adaptation Workshop for Moral Distress in Military Critical Care Nurses.

The US military healthcare services provide the highest level of trusted medical care to its members and to the world population during catastrophic events. These services can be difficult, making moral and ethical situations commonplace. Moral distress results when actions are inconsistent with personal or professional beliefs, resulting in a loss of moral integrity. Moral distress research is well established in the civilian literature and results in poor outcomes and increased expenses. There is little research studying moral distress in military providers. A clinical nurse specialist-led workshop was conducted with military and civilian experts. The expert panel reviewed the literature, examined instruments, and reviewed tool items for applicability to military healthcare providers. The team determined the existing civilian moral distress tool was applicable to military providers. Twelve additional items were added to the modified tool. A tool testing plan was developed to test the tool in military critical care nurses on the last day of the workshop for the next phase of this project. The civilian moral distress tool was adapted for a military version and will be tested in the next phase of the project.

Impact of Anemia in Critically Ill Burned Casualties Evacuated From Combat Theater via US Military Critical Care Air Transport Teams.

US military Critical Care Air Transport Teams (CCATT) transport critically ill burn patients out of theater. Blood transfusion may incur adverse effects, and studies report lower hemoglobin (Hgb) value may be safe for critically ill patients. There are no studies evaluating the optimal Hgb value for critically ill burn patients prior to CCATT evacuation. The aim of the study was to determine if critically ill burn casualties with an Hgb of 10 g/dL or less, transported via CCATT, have similar clinical outcomes at 30 days as compared with patients with an Hgb of greater than 10 g/dL. We conducted an institutional review board-approved retrospective cohort study involving patients transported via CCATT. We separated our study population into two cohorts based on Hgb levels at the time of theater evacuation: Hgb ≤10 g/dL or Hgb ≥10 g/dL. We compared demographics, injury description, physiologic parameters, and clinical outcomes. Of the 140 subjects enrolled, 29 were Hgb ≤10, and 111 were Hgb ≥10. Both groups were similar in age and percent total body surface area burned. Those Hgb ≤10 had a higher injury severity score (34 ± 19.8 vs. 25 ± 16.9, P = 0.02) and were more likely to have additional trauma (50% vs. 25%, P = 0.04). Modeling revealed no persistent differences in mortality, and other clinical outcomes measured. Critical Care Air Transport Teams transport of critically ill burn patients with an Hgb of 10 g/dL or less had no significant differences in complications or mortality as compared with patients with an Hgb of greater than 10 g/dL. In this study, lower hemoglobin levels did not confer greater risk for worse outcomes.

Aeromedical evacuation of combat patients by military critical care air transport teams with a lower hemoglobin threshold approach is safe.

Military critical care air transport teams (CCATT) evacuate critically ill and injured patients out of theater for tertiary treatment. Teams are led by a physician, nurse, and respiratory technician. Current aeromedical guidelines require a hemoglobin (Hgb) of 9 g/dL or greater to evacuate; however, civilians report that an Hgb of 8 g/dL or less is safe in critically ill patients. This study aimed to compare postflight short-term and 30-day patient outcomes for CCATT patients evacuated out of theater with an Hgb of 8 g/dL or less with those with an Hgb of greater than 8 g/dL. We conducted a retrospective record review of all traumatically injured patients evacuated from theater by CCATT between March 2007 and December 2011. We recorded demographics, injury descriptions, vital signs, laboratory values, adverse events, and disposition at 30 days. Patients were separated into those with a preflight Hgb of 8 g/dL or less versus those with greater than 8 g/dL. Continuous data were analyzed using Student's t tests or Wilcoxon tests and reported as mean ± SD. χ or Fisher's exact tests were performed. Stepwise, multifactorial logistic regression models were used. Statistical significance was considered with p < 0.05. Of 1,252 patients, 1,033 had a preflight Hgb of greater than 8 and 219 had an Hgb of 8 or less. Age, sex proportions, vitals, laboratory values, and Injury Severity Score (ISS; 24±13) were similar. The group with 8 or less had more blast injuries (68% vs. 76%, p = 0.01). No associations were identified between preflight Hgb levels and adverse outcomes. Disposition at 30 days was similar. We also compared preflight Hgb greater than 7 versus 7 or less (n = 1,212 vs. 45). Those with an Hgb greater than 7 had a greater incidence of hospitalization at 30 days (77% vs. 67%, p = 0.04). The group with an Hgb of 7 or less had more subjects discharged home or returning to duty (10% vs. 21%, p = 0.04). Evacuating CCATT patients with an Hgb of 8 or less had similar adverse outcomes and mortality at 30 days compared with those with an Hgb greater than 8. Patients with an Hgb of 7 or less had higher rates of hospital discharge and decreased incidence of hospitalization at 30 days. Prognostic/epidemiologic study, level III.

Evacuation of Critically Ill Combat Patients by Military Critical Care Air Transport Teams With a Restricted Transfusion Approach is Safe and May Have Higher Return to Duty Rates

Evacuation of Critically Ill Combat Patients by Military Critical Care Air Transport Teams With a Restricted Transfusion Approach is Safe and May Have Higher Return to Duty Rates

Military critical care AME team

Military critical care AME team

Military Critical Care Nursing: From Point of Injury to Rehabilitation

Military Critical Care Nursing: From Point of Injury to Rehabilitation

Critical care nursing in an austere environment

The purpose of this article is to present an overview of critical care nursing in current battlefield healthcare environments. The various levels of tactical combat casualty care are described with emphasis on those levels in which military critical care nurses are practicing. Results of a critical care medical record review is presented to describe mechanism of injury, critical care diagnoses, length of stay, ventilator days, procedures, and complications. A vast knowledge of various critical care and trauma processes as well as a wide variety of nursing skills are required to provide appropriate care for these casualties. Critical care nursing competencies, cognitive and skill-focused, required to practice in this environment are described.