Mild Developmental Delay Research Articles

The Breathing Struggle: A Case Study of Congenital Lung Malformation in a Young Child

BackgroundCongenital lung malformations (CLMs) are among the rare anomalies that can be diagnosed by bronchoscopy and imaging. They can cause various respiratory symptoms and complications, especially in children with congenital heart disease. This is an interesting case report of a child with a rare combination of congenital anomalies affecting the airway.Case presentationWe report a case of a 3.5-year-old boy with multiple congenital anomalies and respiratory problems since birth. He had a history of mild autism, developmental delay, and sensitivity to smell and smoke. He presented with hoarseness, shortness of breath, severe coughing, and severe wheezing, which worsened with the flu. He underwent bronchoscopy and other diagnostic tests, which revealed a posterior laryngeal cleft, a tracheal bronchus, and a very narrow distal trachea. He was treated with nebulizers, antibiotics, and serum therapy and showed improvement. This case illustrates a rare combination of airway malformations that require a multidisciplinary approach.ConclusionsWe presented a case of rare pulmonary malformations and chronic respiratory symptoms that improved with conventional pharmacotherapy. Increased awareness and understanding of these anomalies among healthcare providers can lead to earlier diagnosis and improved patient outcomes.

Clinical characteristics and genetic analysis of mental retardation disorder with TRIO gene variant

Objective: To summarize the clinical and genetic characteristics of mental retardation disorder (MRD) with TRIO gene variant in children. Methods: Case series study. The data of 9 children with TRIO gene variants were collected retrospectively from August 2019 to March 2024 in Department of Neurology, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University and Department of Pediatrics, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University. The data included gender, age, intellectual and motor development, appearance, seizures, neuroimaging and genetic results. The clinical features and genotype-phenotype correlations were summarized. Results: Of the 9 children, 6 boys and 3 girls, 4 MRD63 children presented with moderate to severe developmental delays accompanied by macrocephaly; 5 MRD44 children had mild to moderate developmental delays with microcephaly. A total of 5 children had dysmorphic facial features (flat occiput, thick eyebrows, unibrow, large ears, short fingers, pale skin, yellow hair, and strabismus), 2 children experienced seizures (1 child with myoclonic seizure and 1 with absence seizure), 4 children had feeding difficulties, 1 child had congenital cataracts, 1 child had congenital heart disease, 1 child had recurrent infections, and 1 child had tiger-striped changes in the fundus examination. TRIO gene variants carried by the 9 children were all de novo, involving 8 variant sites, including 7 missense variants and 1 frameshift variant, c.3232C>T/p.R1078W (2 cases), c.3920A>G/p.Y1307C, c.4112A>T/p.H1371L, c.4283G>T/p.R1428L, c.4394A>G/p.N1465S, c.6041T>C/p.I2014T, c.6821G>A/p.R2274H, c.7027delC/p.Q2343Sfs*70. Among them, 2 sites are located in the Spectrin domain, 4 sites are in the GEFD1 domain, 2 sites are in the GEFD2 domain, and 1 site (frameshift variant) is in the PH2-SH3 domain. The individual with frameshift variant exhibit absence seizures, mild developmental delay, and the mildest phenotype. The child with myoclonic seizures was treated with valproic acid and levetiracetam for seizure control, while the child with absence epilepsy was treated with valproic acid and lamotrigine for seizure control. All 9 children underwent regular rehabilitation exercises, making slow progress. Conclusions: TRIO gene related MRD is characterized by varying degrees of developmental delay, and often accompanied by macrocephaly or microcephaly, dysmorphic facial features, and with or without seizures. The main variant types are missense variants, which are mostly concentrated in the Spectran domain and GEFD domain. p. R1078W may be a relative hotspot variant. The phenotype caused by the frameshift variant is relatively milder.

Triplication of the PCDH19 Gene as a Novel Disease Mechanism Leading to Epileptic Encephalopathy Resembling Loss-of-Function Pathogenic Variants

Background/Objectives: Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy 9 (DEE9) (MIM #300088) affects heterozygous females and males with somatic pathogenic variants, while male carriers with hemizygous PCDH19 pathogenic variants are clinically unaffected. There are hundreds of pathogenic single nucleotide variants in the PCDH19 gene reported in the literature, which lead to the loss of function of the PCDH19 protein. To date, no phenotypes associated with overexpression or copy number gains have been described in this gene. Methods and results: We present a female patient with a de novo triplication in the Xq21.3–q22.1 chromosomal region, which includes the PCDH19 gene, which implies an unbalanced dose gain. This patient displayed a phenotype of epileptic encephalopathy compatible with DEE9. By comparison, another male patient with a similar duplication showed mild developmental delay and autism but never developed epilepsy. Conclusions: Here, we propose the dose gain of PCDH19 as a new pathogenic mechanism that results in a phenotype similar to that found in patients with loss-of-function variants in PCDH19, when present in a heterozygous state.

A Novel Homozygous Variant in CPLANE1 Gene in a Patient with Developmental Deficits

Background: Oral-facial-digital syndrome (OFDS) type 6 is a rare subtype of Joubert syndrome characterized by orofacial anomalies and polydactyly with neurological features of Joubert syndrome. This rare syndrome is divided into thirteen subtypes, all of which demonstrate autosomal recessive inheritance, except for OFDS type 1 which demonstrates X-linked dominant inheritance. Case Presentation: A 19-year-old man with mild developmental delay was brought to a rural community clinic, as he had become irritable and angry, in the recent past. There was no history of prior medical conditions. In view of orofacial anomalies, and developmental deficits, a genetic analysis was requested. Karyotype analysis revealed a normal male karyotype (46,XY) in all 30 metaphase spreads analyzed. No numerical or structural chromosomal abnormalities were observed. Clinical exome sequencing and chromosomal microarray detected a variant of uncertain significance in exon 5 of CPLANE1 gene c.365T>G (p.Val122Gly) leading to substitution of Glycine for Valine. This was confirmed by Sanger sequencing. Parents were heterozygous, and the unaffected sibling was homozygous for the wild-type allele. This variant has not been reported earlier in the mutation databases or gnomAD. Runs of homozygosity (ROH) analysis showed a 3.2 Mb ROH around the CPLANE1 gene in the proband, which was absent in both parents and the unaffected sibling. Conclusion: We find a novel homozygous mutation in the CPLANE1 gene in a patient of non-consanguineous parentage with atypical orofacial features. This suggests that potentially deleterious, rare variants may occur in the heterozygous state in the population. Hence, sequencing of population samples might help understand the genetic epidemiology of rare syndromes.

Identifying SETBP1 haploinsufficiency molecular pathways to improve patient diagnosis using induced pluripotent stem cells and neural disease modelling

BackgroundSETBP1 Haploinsufficiency Disorder (SETBP1-HD) is characterised by mild to moderate intellectual disability, speech and language impairment, mild motor developmental delay, behavioural issues, hypotonia, mild facial dysmorphisms, and vision impairment. Despite a clear link between SETBP1 mutations and neurodevelopmental disorders the precise role of SETBP1 in neural development remains elusive. We investigate the functional effects of three SETBP1 genetic variants including two pathogenic mutations p.Glu545Ter and SETBP1 p.Tyr1066Ter, resulting in removal of SKI and/or SET domains, and a point mutation p.Thr1387Met in the SET domain.MethodsGenetic variants were introduced into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and subsequently differentiated into neurons to model the disease. We measured changes in cellular differentiation, SETBP1 protein localisation, and gene expression changes.ResultsThe data indicated a change in the WNT pathway, RNA polymerase II pathway and identified GATA2 as a central transcription factor in disease perturbation. In addition, the genetic variants altered the expression of gene sets related to neural forebrain development matching characteristics typical of the SETBP1-HD phenotype.LimitationsThe study investigates changes in cellular function in differentiation of iPSC to neural progenitor cells as a human model of SETBP1 HD disorder. Future studies may provide additional information relevant to disease on further neural cell specification, to derive mature neurons, neural forebrain cells, or brain organoids.ConclusionsWe developed a human SETBP1-HD model and identified perturbations to the WNT and POL2RA pathway, genes regulated by GATA2. Strikingly neural cells for both the SETBP1 truncation mutations and the single nucleotide variant displayed a SETBP1-HD-like phenotype.

Identification of CNTN2 as a genetic modifier of PIGA-CDG through pedigree analysis of a family with incomplete penetrance and functional testing in Drosophila.

Loss of function mutations in the X-linked PIGA gene lead to PIGA-CDG, an ultra-rare congenital disorder of glycosylation (CDG), typically presenting with seizures, hypotonia, and neurodevelopmental delay. We identified two brothers (probands) with PIGA-CDG, presenting with epilepsy and mild developmental delay. Both probands carry PIGA S132C , an ultra-rare variant predicted to be damaging. Strikingly, the maternal grandfather and a great-uncle also carry PIGA S132C , but neither presents with symptoms associated with PIGA-CDG. We hypothesized genetic modifiers may contribute to this reduced penetrance. Using whole genome sequencing and pedigree analysis, we identified possible susceptibility variants found in the probands and not in carriers and possible protective variants found in the carriers and not in the probands. Candidate variants included heterozygous, damaging variants in three genes also involved directly in GPI-anchor biosynthesis and a few genes involved in other glycosylation pathways or encoding GPI-anchored proteins. We functionally tested the predicted modifiers using a Drosophila eye-based model of PIGA-CDG. We found that loss of CNTN2 , a predicted protective modifier, rescues loss of PIGA in Drosophila eye-based model, like what we predict in the family. Further testing found that loss of CNTN2 also rescues patient-relevant phenotypes, including seizures and climbing defects in Drosophila neurological models of PIGA-CDG. By using pedigree information, genome sequencing, and in vivo testing, we identified CNTN2 as a strong candidate modifier that could explain the incomplete penetrance in this family. Identifying and studying rare disease modifier genes in human pedigrees may lead to pathways and targets that may be developed into therapies.

Genotype-Phenotype Correlation in Neurofibromatosis Type 1: Evidence for a Mild Phenotype Associated with Splicing Variants Leading to In-Frame Skipping of NF1 Exon 24 [19a

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is an autosomal dominant neurocutaneous disorder caused by loss-of-function variants in the NF1 gene. As of 20 November 2023, over 5000 distinct pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants have been reported in public databases. However, only a few NF1 genotype-phenotype correlations have been established so far. In this study, we present findings on 40 individuals with NF1, comprising 26 unrelated probands and 14 affected relatives, who carry one of nine NF1 heterozygous pathogenic splicing variants, all of which result in the in-frame skipping of exon 24 [19a] (NM_000267.3:r.3114_3197del, p.Asn1039_Arg1066del). These variants include c.3114-2A>G, c.3114-1G>A, c.3196A>G, c.3197G>A, c.3197G>T, c.3197+1G>A, c.3197+1G>T, c.3197+2T>C, and c.3197+3A>T. Among individuals with these variants, none exhibit externally visible plexiform neurofibromas, histopathologically confirmed cutaneous or subcutaneous neurofibromas, symptomatic spinal neurofibromas, or symptomatic optic pathway gliomas. The most prevalent, and sometimes sole, clinical feature observed in this cohort is multiple café-au-lait macules, with or without skinfold freckles: 85% and 60.5% of the individuals display six or more café-au-lait macules and freckles, respectively. In comparison to established NF1 genotype-phenotype correlations, these patients demonstrate highly similar clinical presentations to those associated with the NF1 pathogenic variant c.2970_2972del (p.Met992del), known for resulting in the mildest clinical features. Despite the generally mild phenotype, cognitive impairment, developmental delay, and/or learning difficulties are still observed in 33.3% of these patients, suggesting that learning challenges remain a prominent aspect of the phenotypic presentation in these individuals and necessitate specialized care. This newly established genotype-phenotype correlation will assist clinicians in improving the management of patients harboring NF1 exon 24 [19a] skipping variants and provide a new therapeutic target for NF1 treatment.

Neurodevelopmental Outcomes Following Childhood Viral Meningitis in Canterbury New Zealand.

Most childhood meningitis is viral in countries with widespread conjugate vaccine use. This study assessed clinical features and neurodevelopmental outcomes in preschool children following enteroviral and parechoviral meningitis. Children 18-42 months of age in Canterbury, New Zealand were included, who had enterovirus (EV) or parechovirus (HPEV) meningitis from 2015 to 2021. Comprehensive neurodevelopmental assessments were completed by a psychologist using the Bayley Scale for Infant Development-3 (BSID-3). Mean composite and scaled scores and proportion below the cutoff were assessed in each domain. Clinical data was analyzed. There were 79 children 18-42 months old with previous EV or HPEV meningitis. BSID assessments were completed for 33 children (55% male), median age 32 months, from 2019 to 2022 including 23 with EV and 10 HPEV meningitis. At diagnosis, 32 (97%) received intravenous/intramuscular antibiotics, and 6 received a fluid bolus. Parents reported developmental speech concerns in 6 children, and delayed motor milestones in 1 child. There was no reported sensorineural hearing loss. BSID mean composite scores were in the expected range for cognition 102 (confidence interval: 98-106), language 96 (93-100) and motor 102 (98-106) domains. Overall, 12/33 (36%) children had below expected scores in 1 developmental domain, including scores 1-2 SD below the normative mean for cognition (2/33; 6%), receptive language (6/33; 18%), expressive language (5/33; 15%) and gross motor (6/33; 18%). There were no differences between scores in EV and HPEV meningitis. Following viral meningitis, more than a third of preschool children had a mild developmental delay with comprehensive neurodevelopmental assessment, suggesting targeted follow-up should be considered.

Genetic Microcephaly in a Saudi Population: Unique Spectrum of Affected Genes Including a Novel One.

Background: Genetic microcephaly is linked to an increased risk of developmental disabilities, epilepsy, and motor impairment. The aim of this study is to describe the spectrum of identifiable genetic etiologies, clinical characteristics, and radiologic features of genetic microcephaly in patients referred to a tertiary center in Saudi Arabia. Method: This is a retrospective chart review study of all patients with identifiable genetic microcephaly presenting to a tertiary center in Saudi Arabia. The patients' demographics, clinical, laboratory, radiologic, and molecular findings were collected. Results: Of the total 128 cases referred, 52 cases (40%) had identifiable genetic causes. Monogenic disorders were found in 48 cases (92%), whereas chromosomal disorders were found in only 4 cases (8%). Developmental disability was observed in 40 cases (84%), whereas only 8 cases (16%) had borderline IQ or mild developmental delay. Epilepsy was seen in 29 cases (56%), and motor impairment was seen in 26 cases (50%). Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed abnormalities in 26 (50%) of the cohort. Hereditary neurometabolic disorders were seen in 7 (15%) of the 48 cases with monogenic disorders. The most common gene defect was ASPM, which is responsible for primary microcephaly type 5 and was seen in 10 cases (19%). A novel PLK1 gene pathogenic mutation was seen in 3 cases (6%). Conclusion: Single gene defect is common in this Saudi population, with the ASPM gene being the most common. Hereditary neurometabolic disorders are a common cause of genetic microcephaly. Furthermore, we propose the PKL1 gene mutation as a possible novel cause of genetic microcephaly.

Characteristic phenotypes of ADH5/ALDH2 deficiency during childhood

ADH5/ALDH2 deficiency is a rare inherited syndrome characterized by short stature, microcephaly, delayed mental development, and hematopoietic dysfunction and has recently been proposed as a disease paradigm. Acute and severe presentations include aplastic anemia, myelodysplastic syndrome, or leukemia, requiring bone marrow transplantation during childhood. Conversely, non-hematological manifestations may exhibit a prolonged and nonspecific clinical trajectory, with growth failure and developmental delay, most of which are often overlooked, particularly in patients with milder symptoms. Here, we describe the clinical course of a girl with a wide spectrum of clinical presentations, including nonspecific hematopoietic disorders, growth retardation, mild developmental delay, amblyopia, hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, and verruca vulgaris, culminating in a genetic diagnosis of AMeD syndrome at 12 years of age. We also summarized the clinical manifestations of previously reported cases of AMeD syndrome. Cumulatively, 13 females and 5 males have been documented, with a cardinal triad of symptoms, aplastic anemia, short stature, and intellectual disability. Additional characteristic observations included pigmentary deposition in approximately half of the cases and skeletal difficulties in one-quarter. We propose that early diagnosis of patients who exhibit relatively mild phenotypes of skin or skeletal lesions is important for managing and improving the quality of life of patients with AMeD syndrome.

Review of Opsoclonus-Myoclonus Ataxia Syndrome in Pediatric Patients.

Opsoclonus-myoclonus ataxia syndrome (OMAS), also known as Kinsbourne syndrome, is a rare disorder that presents with myoclonus, ataxia, abnormal eye movements, irritability, and sleep disruptions, often in young children. We report a case of an infant barely 6 months old, with no significant past medical history, who presented to the emergency department with tremors, jerking motions of the head and arms, and rapid eye movements. After an extensive workup, she was found to have a neuroblastoma, which was subsequently surgically removed via thoracotomy. Despite an initial improvement in symptoms post-resection, the patient's symptoms recurred. She was subsequently treated with dexamethasone, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), and rituximab. After treatment, the patient was noted to have mild global developmental delays but was otherwise well. This case report highlights the rare occurrence of OMAS in an infant barely 6 months old at diagnosis. Using the PubMed database, a systematic review was conducted to highlight the clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of OMAS.

Developmental outcomes of preschool children requiring craniosynostosis surgery in Manitoba: a cohort study.

Craniosynostosis is a congenital abnormality resulting in the premature fusion of one or more cranial sutures and usually requires surgical correction in the first year of life. While the majority of craniosynostosis cases represent isolated, nonsyndromic defects, approximately 25% are linked to a genetic diagnosis. Craniosynostosis has been associated with developmental delay. Therefore, historically in Manitoba, all children with surgically managed craniosynostosis were referred to the Child Development Clinic (CDC) for developmental assessment. There are currently prolonged wait times for neurodevelopmental assessments at CDC, leading to the need to better prioritize children who require neurodevelopmental assessment. The aim of the study was then to determine the developmental outcomes of preschool children requiring craniosynostosis surgery in Manitoba from July 1, 2016 through December 1, 2021. In this retrospective cohort study, clinical records were reviewed to evaluate the developmental outcomes of patients who were assessed at CDC for surgically managed craniosynostosis. Out of 67 children included in this study, 18% demonstrated global developmental delay, 24% demonstrated mild developmental delay, and 58% were developmentally appropriate across all levels. The presence of a genetic syndrome, multisutural craniosynostosis, and parental socioeconomic status were associated with risk of global developmental delay. The findings of this study suggest that while not all children with craniosynostosis present with developmental delay, those with suspected or confirmed syndromic involvement, multisutural cranyosinostosis, and/or low SES, should be referred for neurodevelopmental evaluation.

Clinical and molecular characterization of patients with YWHAG-related epilepsy.

YWHAG variant alleles have been associated with a rare disease trait whose clinical synopsis includes an early onset epileptic encephalopathy with predominantly myoclonic seizures, developmental delay/intellectual disability, and facial dysmorphisms. Through description of a large cohort, which doubles the number of reported patients, we further delineate the spectrum of YWHAG-related epilepsy. We included in this study 24 patients, 21 new and three previously described, with pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants in YWHAG. We extended the analysis of clinical, electroencephalographic, brain magnetic resonance imaging, and molecular genetic information to 24 previously published patients. The phenotypic spectrum of YWHAG-related disorders ranges from mild developmental delay to developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (DEE). Epilepsy onset is in the first 2 years of life. Seizure freedom can be achieved in half of the patients (13/24, 54%). Intellectual disability (23/24, 96%), behavioral disorders (18/24, 75%), neurological signs (13/24, 54%), and dysmorphisms (6/24, 25%) are common. A genotype-phenotype correlation emerged, as DEE is more represented in patients with missense variants located in the ligand-binding domain than in those with truncating or missense variants in other domains (90% vs. 19%, p < .001). This study suggests that pathogenic YWHAG variants cause a wide range of clinical presentations with variable severity, ranging from mild developmental delay to DEE. In this allelic series, a genotype-phenotype correlation begins to emerge, potentially providing prognostic information for clinical management and genetic counseling.

A nutritional Vitamin B12 deficiency (infantile tremor syndrome) presenting as hemiconvulsion hemiplegia epilepsy syndrome

Hemiplegia Hemiconvulsion Epilepsy syndrome (HHE syndrome) is a condition characterized by the acute onset of unilateral seizures, which progress to cortical atrophy, hemiplegia and later develop epilepsy over weeks to years. Various aetiologies include infectious causes, especially meningitis, encephalitis, trauma, vascular insults, and sometimes idiopathic. Here, we present a 13-month-old female child, first in birth order, born to a non-consanguineous marriage, who presented with mild global developmental delay with acute onset right focal seizures followed by right-sided weakness and drug-resistant epilepsy. The child was found to have clinical and biochemical features of vitamin B12 deficiency with right-sided weakness. MRI of the brain initially showed edema of the left cerebral hemisphere and later atrophy on the left side. The electroencephalogram showed low voltage activity over the left cerebral hemisphere. Post-treatment with cobalamin, improvement in development was noted, with partial improvement in weakness and persistent epilepsy. In the current report, we highlight Hemiplegia Hemiconvulsion Epilepsy (HHE) syndrome on the background of nutritional vitamin B12 deficiency.

Refining the 9q34.3 microduplication syndrome reveals mild neurodevelopmental features associated with a distinct global DNA methylation profile.

Precise regulation of gene expression is important for correct neurodevelopment. 9q34.3 deletions affecting the EHMT1 gene result in a syndromic neurodevelopmental disorder named Kleefstra syndrome. In contrast, duplications of the 9q34.3 locus encompassing EHMT1 have been suggested to cause developmental disorders, but only limited information has been available. We have identified 15 individuals from 10 unrelated families, with 9q34.3 duplications <1.5 Mb in size, encompassing EHMT1 entirely. Clinical features included mild developmental delay, mild intellectual disability or learning problems, autism spectrum disorder, and behavior problems. The individuals did not consistently display dysmorphic features, congenital anomalies, or growth abnormalities. DNA methylation analysis revealed a weak DNAm profile for the cases with 9q34.3 duplication encompassing EHMT1, which could segregate the majority of the affected cases from controls. This study shows that individuals with 9q34.3 duplications including EHMT1 gene present with mild non-syndromic neurodevelopmental disorders and DNA methylation changes different from Kleefstra syndrome.

β-Actin G342D as a Cause of NK Cell Deficiency Impairing Lytic Synapse Termination.

NK cell deficiency (NKD) occurs when an individual's major clinical immunodeficiency derives from abnormal NK cells and is associated with several genetic etiologies. Three categories of β-actin-related diseases with over 60 ACTB (β-actin) variants have previously been identified, none with a distinct NK cell phenotype. An individual with mild developmental delay, macrothrombocytopenia, and susceptibility to infections, molluscum contagiosum virus, and EBV-associated lymphoma had functional NKD for over a decade. A de novo ACTB variant encoding G342D β-actin was identified and was consistent with the individual's developmental and platelet phenotype. This novel variant also was found to have direct impact in NK cells because its expression in the human NK cell line YTS (YTS-NKD) caused increased cell spreading in lytic immune synapses created on activating surfaces. YTS-NKD cells were able to degranulate and perform cytotoxicity, but they demonstrated defective serial killing because of prolonged conjugation to the killed target cell and thus were effectively unable to terminate lytic synapses. G342D β-actin results in a novel, to our knowledge, mechanism of functional NKD via increased synaptic spreading and defective lytic synapse termination with resulting impaired serial killing, leading to overall reductions in NK cell cytotoxicity.

Landscape of Constitutional SOX4 Variation in Human Disorders.

SOX proteins are transcription factors which play a role in regulating the development of progenitor cells and tissue differentiation. Twenty members are known, clustered in eight groups named A through H and sharing a common DNA-binding domain called the HMG (high-mobility-group) box. Eleven of the SOX genes have been associated with genetic disorders so far, covering a broad spectrum of developmental diseases. SOX4 is a single-exon gene and belongs to the SOXC group, together with SOX11 and SOX12. SOX4 variants have been recently described to cause a highly penetrant but heterogeneous disorder, with a phenotypic spectrum ranging from mild developmental delays and learning difficulties to intellectual disabilities with congenital anomalies. Nineteen pathogenic variants have been reported to date, generally de novo, heterozygous, and inactivating, either stop-gain or missense, the latter ones primarily targeting the HMG domain. Further, a bi-allelic variant was reported in a single consanguineous family. Copy number variants leading to whole gene deletion or duplication are rare and not clearly associated with any neurodevelopmental disorder. Many open questions remain regarding the definition of variants of unknown significance, a possible role of missense variants outside the HMG domain, genotype-phenotype correlation, the range of phenotypic spectrum and modifying factors, and treatment options.

Expansion of the complex genotypic and phenotypic spectrum of FGFR2-associated neurocutaneous syndromes

The fibroblast growth factor receptors comprise a family of related but individually distinct tyrosine kinase receptors. Within this family, FGFR2 is a key regulator in many biological processes, e.g., cell proliferation, tumorigenesis, metastasis, and angiogenesis. Heterozygous activating non-mosaic germline variants in FGFR2 have been linked to numerous autosomal dominantly inherited disorders including several craniosynostoses and skeletal dysplasia syndromes. We report on a girl with cutaneous nevi, ocular malformations, macrocephaly, mild developmental delay, and the initial clinical diagnosis of Schimmelpenning–Feuerstein–Mims syndrome, a very rare mosaic neurocutaneous disorder caused by postzygotic missense variants in HRAS, KRAS, and NRAS. Exome sequencing of blood and affected skin tissue identified the mosaic variant c.1647=/T > G p.(Asn549=/Lys) in FGFR2, upstream of the RAS signaling pathway. The variant is located in the tyrosine kinase domain of FGFR2 in a region that regulates the activity of the receptor and structural mapping and functional characterization revealed that it results in constitutive receptor activation. Overall, our findings indicate FGFR2-associated neurocutaneous syndrome as the accurate clinical-molecular diagnosis for the reported individual, and thereby expand the complex genotypic and phenotypic spectrum of FGFR-associated disorders. We conclude that molecular analysis of FGFR2 should be considered in the genetic workup of individuals with the clinical suspicion of a mosaic neurocutaneous condition, as the knowledge of the molecular cause might have relevant implications for genetic counseling, prognosis, tumor surveillance and potential treatment options.

A case of systemic lupus erythematosus in a patient with Noonan syndrome with recurrent severe hypoglycaemia.

Noonan syndrome (NS) is a dominantly inherited genetic disorder with mutations in genes encoding components or regulators of the Rat sarcoma virus/mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Its diagnosis is based on characteristic features, including typical facial features, a short stature, congenital heart disease, mild developmental delay, and cryptorchidism. Patients with NS sometimes develop autoimmune diseases, such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis and, rarely, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). We herein present a 29-year-old Japanese female with NS complicated by SLE and repeated severe hypoglycaemia. The patient was diagnosed with SLE based on thrombocytopenia, nephritis, a positive antinuclear antibody titre (1:640), and a positive anti-dsDNA antibody. The patient was treated with a glucocorticoid, mycophenolate mofetil, and tacrolimus, which attenuated both SLE and hypoglycaemia. Since insulin receptor antibody levels were higher to the upper normal range and decreased after treatment, hypoglycaemia probably appeared to be attributed to type B insulin resistance syndrome. We herein present the first case of SLE in NS complicated by type B insulin resistance syndrome. Although NS is a rare disease, we need to consider the complication of autoimmune diseases, including SLE.

Effect of music therapy on language skills in children with specific language impairment: A systematic review

Background: Specific language impairment (SLI) delays language development without any neurological damage or disease. This impairment extends to nonlinguistic tasks, such as music perception skills. In recent years, speech-language pathologists (SLPs) and music therapists (MTs) have collaborated to develop and improve approaches for children with communication disorders (CDs), including global developmental delay (GDD), SLI, mild developmental delay (DD), and the risk of developing reading difficulties, by integrating music therapy (MT) and speech therapy (ST). MT could be considered as one of the alternative methods offered to children with SLI to enhance their language skills. Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of MT interventions on language skills in children with SLI and to investigate the characteristics of other intervention features in these studies, such as interventionists, intervention, settings, session type, and music methods. Materials and methods: The study was a systematic review conducted within the framework of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and MetaAnalyses (PRISMA). The quality of the research results was assessed using the critical appraisal tools provided by the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI). Results: Two studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in this systematic review. The two main types of MT employed were song cues and creative music therapy based on the Nordoff-Robbins approach. Current evidence suggests that music therapy improves components of language, including phonology, syntax, morphology, and other aspects of speech development, such as understanding sentences and memory for sentences, in children with SLI. Conclusion: MT can be a valuable and effective intervention for children with SLI. The introduction of transdisciplinary programs that integrate MT and ST could be recommended. However, MT training courses are required for SLPs.