Sons Of Migrants Research Articles

The Feminization of Migration and Mental Health of Older Parents Left Behind: Evidence from Indonesia

With female outmigration for work on the rise, it becomes pertinent to examine how the evolving gender composition of labor migrant streams influences the well-being of those left behind at origin. This study investigates whether a daughter's outmigration for work distinctly affects the mental health of older parents left behind, drawing on the case of Indonesia — one of the largest sources of male and female migrant labor in the world. It uses individual fixed effects regressions to model changing mental health outcomes for a representative panel of 2,133 older parents, ages 50 or more, from the 2007–2008 and 2014–2015 Indonesia Family Life Survey. It finds that older parents, specifically older mothers, who had a daughter migrate for work between waves saw a greater increase in depression over time compared to those who had (a) no labor migrant children in either wave, and (b) only labor migrant sons in both waves. Possible reasons for these gendered mental health implications are discussed, including loss of preferred caregivers at origin, concerns about migrant children's precarity at destination, worries about married migrant daughters’ family stability, and anxieties about unmarried migrant daughters engaging in premarital relationships at destination. This study underscores the need to consider gender-based heterogeneities in future investigations on the impact of migration on those left behind, and in social protection efforts for vulnerable elderly.

Migration of adult male children and associated depression among community-dwelling older parents: A cross-sectional gender analysis from Longitudinal Ageing Study in India, 2017-2018.

This study empirically examines the association of migration of an adult male child (ren) on the mental health of the older parents left behind. It also examines the interaction effects of sex of older parents and male child migration on major depression to explore whether there is a gender differential in the possible association. The data for this study were obtained from the first wave of the Longitudinal Ageing Study in India (LASI, 2017-2018). The total sample size for the present study was 27,248 older adults aged 60years and above (male-12,624; female-14,624). Descriptive statistics along with cross-tabulation were presented. Proportion test was used to evaluate the significance level of differences in depression by sex. Additionally, binary logistic regression analysis was used to find out the associations. Major depression with symptoms of dysphoria, was calculated using the Short-Form Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI-SF). About 10.5% and 9.0% of older males and females had migrant sons. It was found that there was significant gender differential in depression in older age (male: 7.5% and female: 9.7%; p<0.001). It was further found that the prevalence of depression was found among older men (9.3% vs. 7.3%) and women (12.5% vs. 9.4%) with migrant son. Older adults with migrant son had 26% significantly higher likelihood to be depressed in reference to older adults with non-migrant son (AOR: 1.26; CI: 1.02-1.56). Further, older women with a migrant son had 76% significantly higher likelihood to be depressed in reference to older men with migrant son (AOR: 1.76; CI: 1.32-2.39). This study invites policymakers' attention towards migration of adult children and its potential effects on mental health of left-behind older parents in community-settings and in women in particular. Policies should focus on spreading awareness to migrant children of older adults on maintaining frequent contacts and visits to their ageing parents.

Adult children labour migration and parent health: evidence from Indonesian panel data

PurposeThis study aims to explore the impact of adult child labour migration on the health of parents and the possible mechanism that contributes to the health of families left behind.Design/methodology/approachSeveral indicators of parents’ health are analysed and several subgroups – parents of migrant sons, parents of migrant daughters, parents aged 50+ and parents who live in rural areas are investigated. The data from Indonesia Family Life Survey are used and the fixed effects method is used to address potential endogeneity and instrumental variables are applied in the sensitivity analysis.FindingsThe labour out-migration of adult children has a positive and significant association with the health status of the parent left behind. The parents of migrant children are more likely to have a better self-rated health status, fewer episodes of morbidity symptoms, fewer unhealthy days, fewer visits to outpatient care and are less likely to be on medication than the parents of non-migrant children.Research limitations/implicationsThe study design in a longitudinal setting, however, there is a relatively many years gap between waves could provide insufficient statistical power for measuring health variations. Future studies should consider to explore possible health outcomes for parents who co-resided with an adult child and the types and severity of various disease conditions.Practical implicationsHighlights challenges in health-care provision for older people in Indonesia and the possible contribution of health disparities in developing countries.Originality/valueExplores the impact of out-migration of adult children on the health of parents left behind, using very recent data of over a long period of a longitudinal design.

Raconter et se raconter à partir d’images représentant la diversité culturelle : intérêt d’une épreuve projective transculturelle pour les enfants aux appartenances culturelles multiples

IntroductionNowadays, the wide flows of peoples lead individuals who have different culture to get in touch with one another, with a great sharing of life spaces. The psychologists, who mainly deal with multicultural families and children, do not always have suitable psychological tests. ObjectiveThe objective of this article is to evaluate how the TEMAS, in a transcultural version which represents different skin-colored characters, may enable children with multiple cultural belonging to produce stories and, at the same time, provide the psychologists with information about their psychological and emotional dynamics and their identity development. MethodsThrough the analysis of a child's stories, we emphasize the intrapsychic conflicts that he expresses, the way he perceives and interprets the illustrations depending on their latent content and the possible peculiarities connected to his identity development as a migrant's son. ResultsThe closeness between the real multicultural background where the children grow up and the illustrations that represent it, may help the adherence to the material of the test and the quality of the identification and narration process. ConclusionThe TEMAS can be an instrument, which permits to explore the children's psychic functioning, through their narrative productions whatever their cultural and linguistic route is.

Sex-dependent effect of post-migration adaptation on height and relative lower leg length in Polish youth

Background: Growth in tibia length is considered to be particularly sensitive to environmental stress.Aim: To estimate the effect of parental migration status on the relative length of the tibia in their school-age children.Subjects and methods: Data included a nationwide random sample of 17,155 schoolchildren, 7–18 years of age, examined between 1966 and 1969 in Poland who provided information on anthropometric measurements and demographic and social characteristics. Parental migration status was based on paternal migration history. After standardisation by LMS method, z-scores of relative tibia length and z-scores of height were used for analysis. Three-way ANOVA was used to evaluate the influence of migration on tibia length-to-height ratio.Results: Sons of migrants have a significantly higher tibia length-to-height ratio compared to sons of non-migrants. Children of non-migrants were taller than children of migrants among boys in medium SES and among girls in high and low SES. Relative tibia length indicated significant effects of migration among boys in all age categories and in late adolescent girls: sons of migrants had a higher ratio and daughters of migrants had a lower tibia length-to-height ratio.Conclusion: It is possible that migration experiences of the parents may have influenced the growth of their offspring. The results emphasise the potential importance of research addressing the impact of different types of migration on growth of children.

Prometeo, El Grill y la Migración

La crisis económica de Ecuador de 1999, ocasionó la migración al exterior de tres millones de ciudadanos. Ese éxodo masivo ha sido el mayor en la historia de este país latinoamericano. El presente artículo indaga en las consecuencias de la migración vistas desde el arte cinematográfico. Analiza dos películas de directores ecuatorianos: la ficción Prometeo deportado de Fernando Mieles, realizada en 2010 y que cuenta la historia de un grupo de ecuatorianos encerrados en una sala de un aeropuerto europeo, en espera de ser deportados, y el documental El grill de César de Darío Aguirre, producido en 2013, que narra el retorno al país del hijo migrante y el reencuentro con su padre. Más allá de los estudios y de las cifras que se pueden citar en torno al problema social más significativo para el Ecuador en la década inicial del Siglo XXI, es a través del arte, y en este caso específico del cine, como se puede “sentir” lo que ha representado para este país el drama de la migración.&#x0D;

Children’s migration and chronic illness among older parents ‘left behind’ in China

The relationship between adult children’s migration and the health of their older parents ‘left behind’ is an emerging research area and existing studies reflect mixed findings. This study aims to investigate the association between having migrant (adult) children and older parents’ chronic illness in China, using chronic stomach or other digestive diseases as a proxy. Secondary analysis of the national baseline survey of the 2011 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) was conducted. Analyses were conducted in a total of sample of 6495 individuals aged 60 years and above from 28 out of 31 provinces in China, who had at least one child at the baseline survey. Binary logistic regression was used. The prevalence of any of the diagnosed conditions of chronic stomach or other digestive diseases was higher among older people with a migrant son than among those without (27 percent vs 21 percent, p < 0.001). More specifically, the odds ratio of reporting a disease was higher among older adults with at least one adult son living in another county or province than among those with all their sons living closer (OR = 1.29, 95% CI = 1.10–1.51). The results from this large sample of older adults support the hypothesis that migration of sons significantly increases the risk of chronic stomach and other digestive diseases among ‘left behind’ elderly parents in contemporary China.

Making the emotional connection: transnational eldercare circulation within Sri Lankan-Australian transnational families

The scholarship on care for older parents within transnational families focuses mainly on the experience of unskilled migrants and is presented largely from the perspective of caregivers. Few studies consider the case of affluent, skilled migrants, and their wealthy older parents who also cross borders to visit and provide care for their migrant adult–children. Through Baldassar and Merla’s concept of ‘care circulation’ and the lens of emotional transnationalism, the article illustrates that despite affluent transnational family members’ mobility and access to resources that should facilitate successful circulation of care, care is not easily exchanged at an intimate level. Drawing upon 30 transnational family case studies of skilled migrants residing in Australia and their urban, high to middle-income older parents from Sri Lanka, I argue that older parents construct both caring across distance and in proximity as an attentiveness to their emotional care needs, and the time and effort taken to engage in emotion work; a task that is more challenging for migrant sons than daughters. The article reveals the manner in which gendered care practices both enable and inhibit care circulation between transnational migrants and their older parents.

Children's migration and lifestyle-related chronic disease among older parents ‘left behind’ in india

Lifestyle-related chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases and diabetes are now the leading causes of death and disability in India. Interestingly, those Indian states with the highest prevalence of lifestyle-related chronic disease among older adults are also found to have the highest rates of international or internal out-migration. This paper investigates the association between having migrant (adult) children and older parents’ lifestyle-related chronic disease in India. Bi-variate and multivariate analysis are conducted using data from a representative sample of 9507 adults aged 60 and older in seven Indian states from the UNFPA project ‘Building Knowledge Base on Ageing in India’. The results show that for any of the diagnosed conditions of hypertension, diabetes and heart disease, the prevalence among older people with a migrant son is higher than among those without. More specifically, the odds ratio of reporting a lifestyle-related chronic disease is higher among older adults with at least one adult son living in another district, State or outside India than those with their children living closer. This study contributes empirical evidence to the academic and policy debate about the consequences of globalization and urbanization for older people's health status generally, and particularly their risk for reporting chronic diseases that relate to changes in their lifestyle.

Factory Girls After the Factory

Many scholars of gender and migration assume that migration increases women’s household bargaining power, but this article argues that migration recreates and relies on patriarchal expectations that women return to household domestic labor. It draws on 16 months of ethnographic fieldwork with migrant factory women in China’s export processing zones as well as one migrant-sending community in China. Based on this fieldwork, I argue that despite young women’s desires to continue migrating for factory jobs, older generations perpetuate gendered views of female migration as licentious and risky, in opposition to a dominant paradigm of proper femininity that relegates young women to household labor. They do this because migration creates an intergenerational dependence in migrant origin sites. Older women, unemployable in factories and deprived of state welfare support at home, rely on wage remittances from high-earning migrant sons and sons-in-law for subsistence. To ensure they receive remittances, they encourage daughters to marry higher-earning migrant men, then pressure these daughters to cease migrating in order to perform household domestic labor in support of migrant husbands. This finding reflects constraints on the opportunities that migration delivers to women: Not all women can migrate, and those who cannot must vie for control over migrant remittances.

Passing Over

When Pope Francis was elected in 2013, the church and the world were in for many surprises. His first actions and gestures would speak volumes about his values, vision, and understanding of God's mission. In his humility, solidarity, and magnanimity, he paid his own bills, ate meals with common workers, and visited those in prisons. As he began articulating God's universal care for all, he showed his concern for the vulnerable and marginalized, especially those excluded from the centres of power, privilege, and opportunity--those from the margins. Beyond these initial, highly symbolic gestures, his travel itinerary also revealed much about his mission priorities and pastoral perspective. His first journey outside the Vatican was not to Washington, Geneva, London, Beijing, or other centre of political, economic, and cultural power. Instead he chose to visit a small island off the coast of southern Italy named Lampedusa, where thousands of refugees have perished in their dangerous sea crossing in search for better lives. For most of the world, this was an unknown, isolated, and insignificant territory. But to Pope Francis it would be the land from which he would speak about the message of the reign of God, a message that addressed directly the degrading and dehumanizing conditions that result in poverty, exploitation, and injustice. Pope Francis chose to go to Lampedusa because the tragic deaths of these migrants and refugees reached him like a "thorn in the heart." He went there to "make a gesture of closeness," "to challenge our consciences," and to pray for the thousands who have lost their lives after migrating from countries like Eritrea, Somalia, Egypt, Gambia, Mali, Pakistan, and other countries. (2) During his visit he celebrated a eucharist liturgy, and in addition to speaking through words, actions, and rituals, the symbols of the liturgy magnified the depth and importance of his message. Before mass began outside in the open air, he threw a wreath into the sea in memory of the many migrants who had drowned in these waters. A ship's wheel was placed at the lectern, and the cross, chalice, and altar were carved from refugee boats. During the homily, he contrasted the heart of God's mercy with our own heartlessness in the face of human suffering: Has any one of us wept because of this situation and others like it? Has any one of us grieved for the death of these brothers and sisters? Has any one of us wept for these persons who were on the [refugee] boat? For the young mothers carrying their babies? For these men [sic] who were looking for a means of supporting their families? We are a society which has forgotten how to weep, how to experience compassion--"suffering with" others: the globalization of indifference has taken from us the ability to weep! (3) Lampedusa, sadly enough, is not an isolated instance but rather a highly symbolic representation of a larger global phenomenon. Today there are more than 232 million international migrants in the world, making migration one of the defining issues of modern times. (4) In 2012 approximately 45 million migrants were forcibly uprooted, including 15.4 million refugees, 29 million internally displaced persons, and 2.4 million trafficked persons. (5) In 2010 alone 42 million were displaced by natural disasters. (6) By every estimate, these numbers will increase significantly in the coming years. They will continue to cross borders like those between Afghanistan and Iraq, Syria and Turkey, Bulgaria and Greece, Burma and Thailand, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa, Mexico and the United States, and many others. Some of the most vulnerable people in the process are women and children, who bear much of the burden of the world's economic, social, and political disorders. (7) In this essay I would like to examine gender injustice and the issue of international migration in ways that expand on Pope Francis's liturgy at Lampedusa by looking at this "globalization of difference" and the challenges of conversion. …

Can gender differences in educational performance of 15-year-old migrant pupils be explained by societal gender equality in origin and destination countries?

In this paper, we attempt to explain the differences between reading and math scores of migrants’ children (8430 daughters and 8526 sons) in 17 OECD destination countries, coming from 45 origin countries or regions, using PISA 2009 data. In addition to the societal gender equality levels of the origin and destination countries (the gender empowerment measure), we use macro indicators of the origin countries’ educational systems, economic development and religions. We find that migrant daughters from countries with higher gender equality levels obtain higher reading scores than comparable migrant sons do (but this is not the case for math scores). In addition, the higher the gender equality levels in the destination countries, the lower the reading and math scores of both male and female migrants’ children in their destination countries. Further analyses suggest it is the difference between gender equality levels, rather than the levels themselves, that explains the educational performance of both female and male migrant pupils. Our results also show the low gender equality level in Islamic origin countries offers a possible explanation for the low educational performance of Islamic pupils, both male and female. Finally, migrants’ daughters seem to perform slightly better educationally, compared with migrants’ sons.

Do migrant girls perform better than migrant boys? Deviant gender differences between the reading scores of 15-year-old children of migrants compared to native pupils

In this paper, we analyse the gender differences between the educational performance of 15-year-old children of migrants from specific regions of origin countries living in different destination countries with the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009 wave. We study whether this gender difference of migrant pupils deviates from the gender difference between the native pupils in their destination country. We analyse the educational performance of 16,612 daughters and 16,804 sons of migrants in destination countries across Asia, Europe, Latin America, and Oceania. We distinguish 62 origin countries and 12 origin areas in 30 destination countries. Female migrant pupils have both higher reading and math scores than comparable male migrant pupils, and these gender differences among migrant pupils are larger than among comparable native pupils. Parental socioeconomic background has an equal effect on the educational performance of daughters of migrants and on that of sons of migrants. The variation in educational performance by region of origin is, however, not clearly related to the poverty or traditionalism of regions.

‘Filial son’, the family and identity formation among male migrant workers in urban China

This article is based on an ethnographic study of life histories of 28 rural–urban (internal) migrant men located within southern China. It explores their narratives with a particular focus on changing social relations within the family, from the perspective of migrant sons. It argues that traditional gender norms, such as those attached to being a ‘filial son’, are lived out, albeit reworked, among Chinese male migrant workers across generations. The men recount the role of traditional familial gender norms, which are central cultural resources in forging their ‘dislocated’ identities within specific temporal and spatial conditions. For example, being a ‘filial son’ has become an important reference point for these mobile male workers to actively negotiate their emerging masculine identities in the process of negotiating urban lives, while living away from their rural homes. The article also explores a more complex understanding of rural–urban migration in terms of critically engaging with the men's well-being as urban workers.

Intergenerational Exchange Between Parents and Migrant and Nonmigrant Sons in Rural China

This investigation examined whether intergenerational exchanges of time and money resources between older parents and their adult sons in rural China were conditioned on sons' migration status. Data derived from 2001 and 2003 waves of a longitudinal study of 1,126 parents, aged 60 and older, living in rural areas of Anhui Province, China, and their 2,724 adult sons. Random-effects regression analysis showed that marginal financial returns to parents of providing grandchild care services and financial assistance were greater from migrant sons than from nonmigrant sons. We explain these results in terms of strategic investments in the earning potential of migrant sons and the bargaining power wielded by grandparents who care for dependent children of migrants.

Which sons live with their older parents in rural China? The role of migration and intergenerational exchanges

This article investigated how sons' migration and exchanges with parents influenced the likelihood of intergenerational coresidence in rural China. Based on a three-wave longitudinal study in Anhui Province, China, with data collected in 2001, 2003, and 2006, we used random effects logistic regression to predict the likelihood that a non-migrant or return migrant son transitioned into coresidence with his older parent. Our analyses included 1695 observations representing 1224 sons sired by 739 parents. We found that sons were less likely to transition into coresidence with parents who received more upstream financial support from migrant sons. Only sons and youngest sons, particularly when they were return migrants, were more likely than other sons to transition into coresidence. Results indicate that family behaviors of adult sons toward their older parents in rural China are interdependent with each other in migrant families, as well as governed by traditional prescriptions.

Diásporas, viagens, e alteridades: as experiências familiares dos palestinos no extremo-sul do Brasil

O "trânsito internacional" dos palestinos nos permite tratar das várias faces da experiência da diáspora. A diáspora tem sido uma categoria difundida por organizações de defesa da causa palestina que se confunde com a reivindicação de um Estado Palestino. É uma expressão que comporta um uso genérico como uma experiência "de todos os palestinos" que evadiram de um território originário. Uma outra expressão que encontro no trabalho de campo, é a diáspora referida a família "espalhada", que visita-se constantemente, entre cidades, entre países, mas que não se reúne em um único lugar, um lugar "de todos". Demonstro um dos eixos desta experiência de diáspora relacionada ao trânsito internacional. Viagens que são propostas pela família de orientação aos seus membros. A experiência pode ser vista como um momento da migração, a inserção de uma primeira geração, onde os laços familiares gradativamente vão se centrando no lugar escolhido para viver. Todavia, seja como uma característica de primeira ou segunda geração dos migrantes, as famílias são uma realidade intransponível neste trânsito, uma de suas condições sociais e nos permitem desvendar o itinerário da descoberta e da pertinência da identidade palestina para os filhos de migrantes nascidos no Brasil e ingressantes na vida adulta. Analiso como as famílias - aquelas que realizaram viagens internacionais - vivem esta experiência singular através dos relatos de seus filhos. Esta não é exatamente uma viagem de "retorno", pois nem sempre é algo a reconhecer. Aqui, saliento a viagem como uma "iniciação" dos jovens, de forma proporcionada e planejada pela família. Esta experiência tem resultado na "re-descoberta" e "recriação" da pertinência do tema da "origem comum". Longe de ser uma experiência individual, casual e disponível a qualquer um, está de acordo com uma experiência coletiva de alteridades.

Rotten Kids or Manipulative Parents: Are Children Old Age Security in Western Kenya?

This study of old age assistance is based on a sample of elderly households (>60 years) in Karateng sublocation which is 375 km west northwest of Nairobi Kenya. In the area nonagricultural sources of income predominate. Interviews were conducted at the height of the hungry season. Whether parents can influence the level of assistance their offspring provide by adapting the bargaining model of intergenerational transfers developed by Bernheim et al. (BSS) is examined. This model captures both the conflict and cooperation within a family. There is brief discussion of the BSS model demographic and economic characteristics of the elderly and the nature of assistance from children. An econometric model of the determinants of the levels of assistance is provided. The results of the analysis are that children serve as old age security by providing food money and assistance with household tasks. The most common form of assistance was water (70.3% secured water on at least 1 occasion). >50% had received meals in the previous week. Collection of firewood and house cleaning were also widespread. Frequent assistance was low for washing clothes fetching firewood and going to market. 55.7% of assistance was provided by sons and their wives and children. The most common foodstuffs received were maize and maize flour tea and sugar. Nonfood items were rarely received. The largest single receipt was money and absent sons. More than 60% received assistance in the form of materials or cash for dwelling construction. Wealthier parents are more likely to receive greater transfers. Elderly households with greater numbers of children are better cared for than those with fewer children. In Karateng in contrast to other South Asian studies successful elderly parents had both migrant sons and children resident or adjacent to them. In the econometric analysis the hypothesis that the elderly can manipulate behavior to obtain higher levels of care is supported. Sons provide assistance out of a sense of duty and not for personal gain. Household heads >50 years responded that the land would be divided equally among the sons. In fact land was equally divided in only 40-50% of the cases. The small sample size restricts the applicability of results.

Entry to the Skilled Trades in Australia: the role of family background and school achievement

Summary This paper reports an analysis of factors associated with entry to skilled trades through the Australian apprenticeship system. It is based on data collected from a sample of nearly 2500 17‐year‐old males in 1978. The results suggest that: (a) young males whose fathers were tradesmen were more likely to participate in apprenticeship training than other young males; (b) apprentices had relatively higher achievement on numerical tests than on verbal tests; (c) the sons of migrants from non‐English speaking countries were less involved in apprenticeship than other 17‐year‐old males; and (d) young males who had attended private secondary schools were less likely to be involved in apprenticeship training than those who had attended public schools. It was found that whether a person's father was a tradesman was a better predictor of participation in apprenticeship than the social prestige of the father's occupation.

Migration and Vertical Occupational Mobility

STUDIES of social stratification in the United States have shown a striking contradiction in findings. The few studies of vertical mobility' report that a large minority or even majority of men are engaged in occupations with socio-economic status different from their fathers. The community-focused investigations of social classes, on the other hand, either neglect to report any observed vertical mobility or imply strongly that mobility is rare and class lines are firm.2 An exception is a recent community study by Deasy,3 who took the novel step of inquiring directly about new and former members of the elite group and about families who had failed in their attempts to enter the elite. It is significant that she found a considerable influx into the upper-upper class. Some of the sociologists engaged in the study of stratification have found it possible to reconcile these divergent findings. First of all, it is apparent that certain of the more active students of American stratification are not diligently looking into evidence on mobility. A second interpretation, which has been discussed at some length by Florence Kluckhohn,4 is based on observation of the failure in the community studies of stratification to record the origins and careers of individuals migrating into or away from the community. It is to be expected that individuals who leave their home communities become detached from stable status relationships and manifest unusual mobility. The present study attempts to test this hypothesis. The Kentucky community studied, containing about 1500 white households, is within an hour's drive of two moderate sized cities and within a hundred miles of two metropolitan centers. The reported on are the white male household heads residing in the community and having one or more sons aged 15 or older who have completed their schooling. The sons are divided into two groups: those who have remained in the community, and those who have migrated. For each of these two groups occupations of fathers and sons are scaled and compared with each other. In addition, inter-generation occupational mobility is related to general social status scores of the fathers based on four combined indices: occupation, type of house, dwelling area, and prestige ratings by local judges.5 The combinations of occupations for each set of sons and fathers are shown in Table 1; the complete table is included because of the paucity of similar mobility data in the literature. The patterns of occupational inheritance and mobility here displayed resemble those found in the studies 1 Richard Centers, Mobility of Urban Occupational Strata, American Sociological Review, 13 (1948), pp. 197-203; H. D. Anderson and P. E. Davidson, Occupational Mobility in An American Community, Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1937; C. C. North and P. K. Hatt, Jobs and Occupations: A Popular Evaluation, in L. Wilson and W. L. Kolb, Sociological Analysis, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1949, p. 473. 2 The widely known studies published by W. L. Warner and his associates are particularly in point here. 3 Leila Calhoun Deasy, Social Mobility in Northtown (Cornell University Dissertation), 1953. 4Florence R. Kluckhohn, Dominant and Substitute Profiles of Cultural Orientation, Social Forces. 28 (1950). p. 388. 5 The scales used, except for prestige, were those presented in W. L. Warner, M. Meeker, and K. Eells, Social Class in America: a Manual of Procedure for the Mleasurement of Social Status, Chicago: Science Research Associates. 1949. Perforce, parental reports of migrant sons' occupations were used.PI