Middle Qing Research Articles

The Historical Changes in Chengdes Transportation and Its Impact on Urban Development

Transportation has played an indispensable role in driving urban development from ancient times to the present. This paper aims to explore the historical evolution of transportation in Chengde and examine the influence of transportation factors on the city's functions from different perspectives. The research reveals that Chengde's urban development has undergone four stages: natural villages before the Liao Dynasty, urban construction from the Liao Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty, urban development from the early to middle Qing Dynasty, and the present era after the reform and opening-up. The study results demonstrate that Chengde's transportation development has undergone significant transformations. It has not only provided essential support for various aspects such as politics, religion, culture, economy, and military during the Qing Dynasty, but also served as a vital guarantee for modern economic development, tourism, arts, and environmental protection.

The Ecological and Social Effects of Cropland Expansion in the HehuangValley during theMing and Qing Dynasties

In this paper, we strive to showthat the protection of the ecological environment of the Yellow River can impact regional sustainable development and human society. Based on GIS and historical documents, we selected 1640AD in the late Ming Dynasty and 1726, 1746, and 1856AD in the early and middle Qing Dynasty as time sections to reconstruct the distributions of cropland and vegetation in the Hehuang valley. Our results showed that the cropland in the Ming Dynasty was mainly distributed in the valley of Sainei;during the early and mid-Qing Dynasty, the cropland reclamation broke the boundary of the Great Wall. Furthermore, replacing vegetation with cropland resulted in the rapid decline of water conservation capacity in the medium and high mountain areas. The decline of water conservation capacity significantly contributed to the frequent occurrence of natural disasters, such as drought, flood, water erosion, and sand pressure, which led to decreased cropland output. By the mid-Qing Dynasty, the cropland area had saturated while the population was still growing, and the grain yield could not meet the demands of the expanding population. Due to both natural and social factors, two social upheavals occurred in the late Qing Dynasty, which significantly affected the development of the regional social economy. Therefore, the destruction of the ecological environment and the reduction of water conservation capacity became an important driving force for the destruction of sustainable regional development.

Chinese export porcelain in the middle Qing Dynasty: Study on the blue-and-white porcelains excavated from the “Xiaobaijiao I” shipwreck

The “Xiaobaijiao I” shipwreck of the Daoguang period (1821–1850 CE) of the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912 CE) was found in the sea area of North Yushan Islands of China, from which a total of 592 blue-and-white porcelain wares were excavated. These precious cultural relics and shipwreck itself are powerful witnesses of the Maritime Silk Road. In this study, energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence was used to analyze the body and glaze compositions of the typical blue-and-white porcelains from the shipwreck. Based on the differences in trace elements such as Rb, Zr, and Mn, the two types of blue-and-white porcelains from different origins can be distinguished. X-ray diffraction analysis and scanning electron microscope show that there are only a few unmelted quartz grains in the glaze of type 1, while type 2 has a lot of sub-micron to micron-sized anorthite crystals within the glaze layer owing to the firing temperature being lower than that required for a proper firing. Thus the strong light scattering effect upon the incident light caused by anorthite and quartz crystals seriously reduces the transparency of the glaze layer and results in the underglaze blue patterns to appear dull and unclear. Combining the results of energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence and micro-Raman spectroscopy, pigment particles at the glaze-body interface of the first type mainly exist in the form of spinel-structured CoAl2O4 and its solid solutions, which is associated with the pre-processing of the pigment. The clarity and sharpness of the underglaze blue patterns come from the excellent thermal stability of the spinels consisting of the pigment. While the blurred effect of the underglaze blue patterns of type 2 is mainly due to Co2+ ions partially melting into the glaze at high temperature and coloring the glass phase. The study on “Xiaobaijiao I” shipwreck and the porcelains it carried can reflect the overview of the Chinese porcelain production and exportation in the middle Qing Dynasty.

Colour and composition characteristics of beige-glazed porcelain from Jingdezhen Imperial Kiln, early and middle Qing Dynasty (18th century)

The Jingdezhen Imperial Kiln made unprecedented achievements in the firing of colour glazed porcelain during the Qing Dynasty (1636–1912). Among these, beige-glazed porcelain became an imperial porcelain variety reserved for the exclusive use of the imperial household. To reveal details of the manufacturing process, Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) and spectrophotometry, combined with the records of ancient Chinese documents were used to analyse samples of beige-glazed porcelain fired at the Jingdezhen Imperial Kiln in the early and middle Qing Dynasty (18th century) and unearthed from the Nandaku area of the Forbidden City. The results show that the colour of beige glaze in the Qing Dynasty was similar to that in the Song Dynasty (960–1279), which is consistent with ancient literature records reflecting the former's imitation of ‘Beige Song Glaze’. The beige-glazed porcelain body is made of a binary formula of porcelain stone and kaolin clay, in a ratio between 5:5 and 4:6. Based on the glaze layer formula of purple-gold imperial porcelain, the beige glaze layer was fired by innovatively adjusting the ratio of glaze stone, glaze ash and purple-gold clay. The imitation of ‘beige Song glaze’ and the innovation of purple-gold glaze reflected the exacting production and high technology of the Jingdezhen Imperial Kiln in the Qing Dynasty.

Bloomery iron smelting in the Daye County (Hubei): Technological traditions in Qing China

China is widely accepted as the birthplace and shrine of the blast furnace, with bloomery iron technology largely believed to be scant before the Han Dynasty, and virtually inexistent afterwards. Challenging this traditional picture, this paper presents the material characterisation and reverse engineering of the primary smelting of bloomery iron at five metal production sites, located in close proximity of each other in the Daye County in Hubei Province, China, and in operation during the middle Qing Dynasty.A combination of materials science analyses–optical microscopy, SEM-EDS and WD-XRF–of surface collected technical material such as slags, furnace remains, and ores has demonstrated the established existence of bloomery iron at the core of the Chinese Empire. The five case studies present robust evidence of an overall broadly shared technical procedure based on the smelting of high grade ores in batteries of embanked furnaces, generating abundant slag but a limited metal output. The reconstruction of the various smelting processes in a relatively small region illustrates different technological adaptations to natural resources and socio-technological contexts, which are discussed using conceptual frameworks of rational economy and technological traditions.

詞論與實踐：以周濟《存審軒詞》爲中心之考察

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in Chinese; abstract also in English.
 周濟（1781—1839）爲確立常州詞論的重要人物，影響了清代中葉以降至民國時期的詞壇。雖然學界對周濟詞論的論述頗多，然而並未對周濟詞作所體現的詞學現象進行較深入的分析。《存審軒詞》爲周濟早年至中年的詞作總集，成書年代介於《詞辨序》、《介存齋論詞雜著》以及《宋四家詞選》之間，正好能與周濟詞學理論建構過程的軌迹互爲比對。
 本文著眼於周濟詞論與詞作實踐。首先析理周濟詞情的兩種層次，以及他如何通過詠物詞落實個人的寄託説，藉此與浙派區别。其次對照周濟詞論與詞作的創作特徵，觀察周濟詞學理論完備之前，他對白石、稼軒以及清真等詞作的模擬，以辨明他早年受浙西詞派的影響程度。最後從周濟詞作中梳理四家門徑之説的形成端倪，補充學界對周濟“由浙至常”此一詞學轉向研究未足之處。
 Zhou Ji (1781—1839) is a person of great influence on Ci’s theories from the middle Qing dynasty to Early Republican China. Most of the researchers have mentioned the importance of Zhou Ji’s Ci theory; however, the contemporary researches of the relationship between his Ci theory and works are still insufficient. Cunshenxuanci is Zhou Ji’s collections of Ci from his early to middle years, which is written among ‘Cibianxu,’ “Jiecunzhailuncizazhu” and “Songsijiacixuan.” It is not only a reveal of his talent for Ci, but also the reflection of the transitive procedure from Zhe Xi to Chang Zhou in the middle Qing dynasty.
 This article focuses on the relationship between the practice of Zhou Ji’s works and his Ci theory. It starts with the connections among Ci Qing, Ji Tuo and Yong Wu. Then attempting to analyze how was he influenced by Wentingyun and JiangKui in his early years and the reason why Jiaxuan became one of his ideal agendas of Ci. Based on both the textual analysis and the interpretation of his Ci theory, we can re-understand the formative progress of Zhou Ji’s Ci theory.

Climate change, migration, and regional administrative reform: A case study of Xinjiang in the middle Qing Dynasty (1760–1884)

Based on historical records of extreme climate events and population densities in Gansu and Shaanxi, and information on climate change, populations, new cultivated cropland, and administrative system reform in Xinjiang, this study explores the interaction between climate change, migration, and regional administrative reform in the middle Qing Dynasty. The results showed that the surge in population migration from Gansu and Shaanxi to Xinjiang during 1760–1820 was caused by extreme climate events (droughts and floods) and population pressure in Gansu and Shaanxi. During 1760–1880, the climate in Xinjiang was unusually cold and humid, which was highly conducive to abundant regional water resources. This provided favorable conditions for farmland irrigation and further promoted agricultural cultivation, population growth, and town development within this region. Additionally, the interactions between climate change and the above-mentioned social factors, which acted as driving forces, spurred the reform in the administrative system of Xinjiang whereby the military administration system was transformed to a province administration system. Through this reform, the Qing government managed to restore peace and stability in Xinjiang. This study contributes to a better understanding of climate-related population migration and enhances our knowledge of the impact-response chain between climate change, ancient social developments, and political coping strategies, especially in regional administrative reform.

Research and Discussion on the Stereotyped Writing Criticism Genre during Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties

In this paper, we conduct research on the stereotyped writing criticism genre during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Ming and Qing dynasty, especially in middle Qing dynasty literature in almost all areas have made great progress that make the various forms of genre of Chinese classical literature have been into the comprehensive prosperity. The rhythm of the eight-part essay writing features can also be of composition structure shift from above, the inversion analysis of rhythm of the reasonable explanation. Eight-part essays writing have speaking format, the arrangement of each part of the article structure and should be treated according to certain programs. This paper integrates the related result to propose the new idea on the stereotyped writing criticism genre that propose the novel perspective for the related research areas.

男旦作为虚拟女伎对清代中前期小说的影响

It was a transition of music and dancing in the early and middle Qing dynasty, when female impersonators became popular in space of female kabuki. The industry of female impersonators gave the most profound impact on Chinese literature. It is mainly that female impersonators had an influence on homosexual literature. The first class writers who would be willing to create the literature images were on the increase. The writers felt well disposed towards the actors, which improved the standard of work and led to elegance of homosexual literature. Because of the decreasing of masculinity and the increasing of femininity, those works were getting feminine and tender. It has practical strategic significance for China to study the effect of culture about female impersonators.

명당장부도(明堂臟腑圖)에서 기원한 간장도(肝臟圖) 29종의 비교

Objectives : The goal of this paper is to research what affected diagrams of liver originated from Mingtangzangfutu while they were changed. Methods : Diagrams of liver in Traditional Chinese and Japanese medical books had been gathered as many as possible. After they were divided into ones which were originated from Mingtangzangfutu and the others, diagrams originated from Mingtangzangfutu, were again classified into 4 filiations according to Huang Longxiang(黃龍祥)'s standard. Apart from his classification, they were analysed by 4 form factors, e.g. shape, number, veins and petiole of leafs. Results : Reliability of this methods had been confirmed by the correspondence with Huang's 14 standard books, before 29 diagrams of liver were derived from 33 books including 13 books that Huang had already suggested. The lobes of liver in most of diagrams resembled 7 lanceolate or long oval leafs, or a maple leaf with 6 indentations, 4 left lobes and right 3 ones. In most of diagrams, veins of leafs were described variously, and petioles of leafs were drawn more shortly or longer. Analysing 29 diagrams by 4 form factors proved that Huang's classification had crossing features among 4 filiations. This phenomenon implied the painters or doctors drawing diagrams might not convince if the shape of liver was correct or not. Although veins and petiole of leafs in diagrams of liver could be compared with tissues in liver in modern human anatomy, diagrams were not been affected by dissection from Yuan(元) to middle Qing(淸) dynasty. Conclusions : Lingshu(靈樞), Nanjing(難經) and Wang Bing would had constantly acted on 29 diagrams of liver, since diagram of liver originated from Mingtangzangfutu, appeared first in Zhenjiujuying(鍼灸聚英). But they did not come from dissection during same periods.

The Boxue Hongci 博學宏詞 Examinations, Literary Anthologies by Emperors and the Literary Circles during the Kangxi and Qianlong Periods

As a result of political demands and imperial cultural cultivation, the Qing Dynasty reigns of Kangxi (1661–1722) and Qianlong (1736–1796) both paid great attention to the traditional Han culture. During these periods, there were two landmark events that embodied the success of their cultural policy. These were the special examinations of boxue hongci (“breadth in learning and vastness in letters”, also called boxue hongru) in 1679 and 1736, and the publishing of numerous literary anthologies by the emperors. However, scholarly discussions have often focused mainly on aspects of political and cultural domination, and have rarely discussed the impact of these two events on literary circles in the early and middle Qing Dynasty. Thus, this paper examines the boxue hongci examination and the literary anthologies by Emperors as literary events and evaluate them from three perspectives. First, with regards to literary purposes, these two events fostered the link between official and elite discourses. Second, with regards to literary styles, these two events together facilitated the emergence at the height of the Qing Dynasty styles known as qingzhen yazheng (“purity, authenticity, elegance and correctness”) and wenrou dunhou (“gentleness and restraint”). Third, with regards to literary layout, the two events changed the proportion of writers’ identity and actively advanced the balance of the north and south literary circles.

The National-wide Market and Local Economy in the Middle Qing Dynasty

The National-wide Market and Local Economy in the Middle Qing Dynasty

Scamming the Purchase-of-Rank System in Qing China

The Qing purchase-of-rank ( juanna ) system was a site of criminal activities including forgery of jiansheng (imperial university student) licenses and similar credentials associated with the cult of Confucius. Case records reflect the intersection of status hunger, market networks, and political authority. Typical offenders were small-time middlemen who promised to make contributions by proxy but kept the silver and gave their victims bogus licenses. The state needed revenue and could not tolerate forgery of official documents, a serious political transgression. Crime narratives and sentencing recommendations reflected both imperatives, often depicting contributors as ignorant victims and counterfeiters as scoundrels who deserved death.

On the Scholar operas during the middle Qing Dynasty

On the Scholar operas during the middle Qing Dynasty

淸 中期 王倫의 淸水敎 反亂과 淸朝의 對應

淸 中期 王倫의 淸水敎 反亂과 淸朝의 對應

淸 中期 王倫의 淸水敎 反亂集團의 形成과 그 人的 構成

淸 中期 王倫의 淸水敎 反亂集團의 形成과 그 人的 構成

Hanxue Shangdui : A case study on the contentions between the Han School and the Song School in the middle Qing dynasty

During the Jiaqing and Daoguang periods of the Qing dynasty, Fang Dongshu published the Hanxue Shangdui, which launched a fierce attack on the Han School and marked the open contentions between the Han and the Song schools. While defending the Song Learning, Fang attacked the shortcomings of the Han School, mainly in four aspects: the Han School’s methods of scholarship, various concepts of philosophy proposed by the Han-Learning scholars, the trivial and piecemeal character, and the heterodoxy of the Han School. Fang Dongshu criticized the Han-Learning scholars who paid attention only to the books and neglected the social affairs. Sharp and reasonable as it was, his criticism however seemed less objective, especially when he tried to use the emperor’s authority to threaten the Han School, which was beyond the range of the normal academic debates.

Spatiotemporal dynamics of reclamation and cultivation and its driving factors in parts of China during the last three centuries*

Different from other similar studies, in this paper, most of the data were excerpted from historical archives and documents, and were used to study the spatiotemporal dynamics of cultivated land resources in China during the last 300 years. It is clear that these data may help reveal land use change dynamics and its regional differences, but they may be problematic due to the constraints of the original data in the Ming Dynasty, Conversion of Land Area for the purpose of collecting land taxes, and the deliberate or inadvertent omission of cultivated land area during land surveys, therefore, such data were adjusted to our need. In processing the data, we made great efforts to analyze the historical context of their sources and reduced the possible errors. The results show that the cultivated land area increased most quickly in the early Qing Dynasty, and slowed down after the middle Qing Dynasty, and then was stable in the late Qing Dynasty until 1949, and has been decreasing since then. It is also found that the cultivated land use varied greatly in different regions. The east of the country was cultivated much more heavily than the west, but in some western provinces cultivated land area increased more quickly. It is considered that the driving factors of such cultivated land area change include the increase of the population, the political issues, and the impacts of wars. Natural environmental factors and the introduction of new crops might also have affected the cultivated land use change in the past 300 years.

Analysis of historical formation of agricultural areas in Sichuan basin and geographical factors

The earliest agricultural activities in Sichuan Basin can be traced back to the middle Neolithic Age. During the development process afterwards, the Qin and Han dynasties, the Sui and Tang dynasties, and the Northern Song Dynasty were three peaks of agricultural development. The various natural conditions resulted in a variety of agricultural patterns in Sichuan Basin. The drainage system played a major role and always went before land and agricultural development in different historical periods. The wars and natural disasters in the end of the Ming Dynasty severely damaged the agricultural system. It was until the early and middle Qing Dynasty that many immigrants from other provinces restored and promoted the agricultural activities in Sichuan Basin.