Middle Paleolithic Assemblages Research Articles

Dibble’s Reduction Thesis: Implications for Global Lithic Analysis

Harold Dibble demonstrated the systematic effects of reduction by retouch upon the size and shape of Middle Paleolithic tools. The result was the reduction thesis, with its far-reaching implications for the understanding of Middle Paleolithic assemblage variation that even now are incompletely assimilated. But Dibble’s influence extended beyond the European Paleolithic. Others identified additional reduction methods and measures that complement Dibble’s reduction thesis, and applied analytical concepts and methods consistent with it to industries and assemblages around the world. These developments facilitated comprehensive reduction analysis of archaeological tools and assemblages and their comparison in the abstract despite the great diversity of their time–space contexts. Dibble argued that many assemblages are time-averaged accumulations. In cases from New Zealand to North America, methods he pioneered and that others extended reveal the complex processes by which behavior, tool use, curation, and time interacted to yield those accumulations. We are coming to understand that the record is no mere collection of ethnographic vignettes, instead a body of data that requires macroarchaeological approaches. Archaeology’s pending conceptual revolution in part is a legacy of Dibble’s thought.

Cooked or discarded? Experimental distinction of rabbit burnt bones and its application to the archaeological record

Leporid bones from Middle Palaeolithic assemblages may result from the contributions of various predators, including humans, or natural processes. Although the acquisition, processing, and consumption of small mammals by Neanderthal groups has been widely demonstrated, there are still some unresolved issues. Cut marks are typically the most reliable indicators of human processing of carcasses. However, animals the size of rabbits often pose a challenge in this regard, as the use of stone tools is not always necessary for their consumption, particularly for meat or marrow extraction. Consequently, the quantity of these types of marks, such as cuts or hammer-stone percussion damage, indicating human processing, may be limited. Burning is another type of bone damage that could be indicative of human action, although both intentional and accidental processes could lead to the thermal alteration of remains without necessarily linking them to consumption. Therefore, efforts to distinguish the processes resulting in bone burning are of vital importance in determining the origin of these animals in archaeological assemblages. In this work, the results of several experimental series designed to characterise the roasting and subsequent cleaning of waste on rabbit bones are presented. These results confirm most of the characteristics described in previous experimental works on burnt bones, highlighting the differential damage between bones with and without meat. The current study aims to contribute new data for characterising burned rabbit bones resulting from human actions, which can then be applied to Middle Palaeolithic assemblages with this type of thermal alteration bone modifications.

A Bayesian luminescence chronology for the Bawa Yawan Rock Shelter at the Central Zagros Mountains (Western Iran)

Bawa Yawan Rock Shelter is one of the critical Palaeolithic sites discovered recently in the Central Zagros in Western Iran. The site exhibits a rich assemblage from the Middle Palaeolithic (Zagros Mousterian) to the Epipalaeolithic, and it discloses one Neanderthal canine tooth. The site stands out as one of the handfuls of Palaeolithic sites in the Central Zagros that contain human remains. Therefore, establishing a reliable chronology revealing the temporal period in which Neanderthals inhabited the region plays a significant role in our understanding of the human past in the region. We employed luminescence dating in combination with Bayesian modelling to improve the precision of the estimated ages. Our results indicate that the Middle Palaeolithic assemblages unearthed from geological layers GH3 to GH5 in the site fall in the [58–80] ka time frame (68% credible interval). More importantly, the Bayesian age for the layer containing the Neanderthal remains exhibited [65–71] ka (68%). This age contradicts the previous 14C-based chronology. We argue that it is likely that the 14C dates underestimate the timing of the Middle Palaeolithic industries at Bawa Yawan.Furthermore, our study reveals the first luminescence age for the Epipalaeolithic in the Central Zagros, which is dated to [13–15] ka (68%).

Techno-economy of lithic raw materials in Piedmont (north-western Italy): A first life-like scenario

Data about Palaeolithic peopling, settlement dynamics and techno-economy of the south-western margin of the Alpine region are sketchy. In this area, the lack of systematic research and the scarcity of lithic raw materials, spread the idea that Piedmont was not inhabited during Palaeolithic. In 2009, the re-starting of the excavations at the Ciota Ciara cave, gave rise to new questions and to the development of research projects at a regional scale.
 The Ciota Ciara cave is the only Middle Palaeolithic site object of multidisciplinary and systematic investigations. Its lithic assemblage, analysed through a techno-economic approach, allows to understand in detail the technological choices and the land mobility of the Neanderthal groups on a local and sub-regional scale. Other Middle Palaeolithic assemblages are known in the region and are all issued from surface collections. They come from the northern part of the region, from Vaude Canavesane, Trino, Baragge biellesi and Colline Novaresi. The technological study of these assemblages led to the identification of strong similarities in the technological choices of the Middle Palaeolithic human groups: they based their technology on the exploitation of vein quartz, a rock diffused all over the regional territory, from time to time accompanied by other local (spongolite, rhyolite, metamorphic rocks, jasper) and allochthonous (radiolarite and flint) lithic resources, with technological adaptation to their quality and mechanical properties both when it comes to predetermined methods (Levallois and discoid) and when expedient reduction sequences are used. Concerning Upper Palaeolithic, the only lithic assemblage issued from an archaeological excavation (and therefore with a clear stratigraphic context) is that from the Epigravettian site of Castelletto Ticino. Other lithic artefacts referable on a techno-typological basis to Upper Palaeolithic are from Trino and Colline Novaresi. As for Middle Palaeolithic, the techno-economic approach used in the analysis of these lithic assemblages, allow to have, for the first time, reliable data at a regional scale.
 In this work we present the data obtained after about ten years of research in Piedmont: they outline a scenario where, even in the limits of analysis mostly based on materials issued from surface collections, we can see both clear differences between the Middle and the Upper Palaeolithic technological behaviours and hypothesise the land mobility of the hunter-gatherers’ groups that inhabited the region.

Diversity of MIS 3 Levallois technology from Motravulapadu, Andhra Pradesh, India‐implications of MIS 3 cultural diversity in South Asia

The chronology and hominin association of the South Asian Middle Palaeolithic have attracted much attention in the last few decades. The emergence of Middle Palaeolithic culture in the region has been debated between the local origins (behavioural change) model based on an early date around 380 ka and the diffusion (biological change) model based on Homo sapiens dispersals from Africa around 120–80 ka. The latter has more consensus, whereas the former requires a more robust chronological framework to attribute the emergence of the Middle Palaeolithic to behavioural changes. In the absence of hominin remains, the presence of Middle Palaeolithic technological trajectories are frequently used as behavioural markers of Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens fossil remains from the regions between Africa and South Asia dated to ∼ 200 ka presents more convincing support for the latter model. Here we present contextual, chronological and technological analysis of Middle Palaeolithic assemblages dated to 52 ka from Motravulapadu, Andhra Pradesh, India. Morphometrical analysis of the lithic assemblage indicates diverse Levallois core reductions were practised at the site at the onset of MIS 3. Further this evidence highlights the significance of MIS 3 cultural diversity in South Asia, likely related to changing population dynamics, cultural drift, and the highly variable climatic context of MIS 3.

Gazma Cave—A Final Middle Paleolithic Site in Azerbaijan: Paleogeography, Chronology, Archaeology

This article describes the Middle Paleolithic industry of Gazma Cave in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan. We present data on the stratigraphy, paleontology, chronology, and archaeology of the site. Six lithological layers were identifi ed, three of which (IV–VI) contain abundant archaeological material. The chronology of the site is based on a series of luminescence ages. The deposition of layers IV–VI formed ~55–40 ka BP. Paleontological, pollen, and grain size analysis offer the possibility of reconstructing Late Pleistocene environments around the cave. Faunal analysis indicates steppe, semi-steppe, and wooded mountains, with riparian forests and reeded areas in the fl oodlands. The analysis of 896 artifacts attests to the predominance of Levallois and parallel reduction. The share of Levallois blanks is high. The most common artifacts are Levallois and Mousterian points and side-scrapers; there are also limaces, knives, and a few indistinct Upper Paleolithic types such as end-scrapers and borers. Ventral basal trimming of points and ventral or dorsal thinning of side-scrapers were widely used. All the main indicators show the Gazma industry corresponds to the fi nal Middle Paleolithic assemblages currently known in the Southeastern Caucasus.Gazma is an expressive MIS 3 example of the Taglar industry.

Did Early Pleistocene hominins control hammer strike angles when making stone tools?

In the study of Early Pleistocene stone artifacts, researchers have made considerable progress in reconstructing the technical decisions of hominins by examining various aspects of lithic technology, such as reduction sequences, hammer selection, platform preparation, core management, and raw material selection. By comparison, our understanding of the ways in which Early Pleistocene hominins controlled the delivery and application of percussive force during flaking remains limited. In this study, we focus on a key aspect of force delivery in stone knapping, namely the hammerstone striking angle (or the angle of blow), which has been shown to play a significant role in determining the knapping outcome. Using a dataset consists of 12 Early Pleistocene flake assemblages dated from 1.95 Ma to 1.4 Ma, we examined temporal patterns of the hammer striking angle by quantifying the bulb angle, a property of the flake's Hertzian cone that reflects the hammer striking angle used in flake production. We further included a Middle Paleolithic flake assemblage as a point of comparison from a later time period. In the Early Pleistocene dataset, we observed an increased association between the bulb angle and other flake variables related to flake size over time, a pattern similarly found in the Middle Paleolithic assemblage. These findings suggest that, towards the Oldowan–Acheulean transition, hominins began to systematically adjust the hammer striking angle in accordance with platform variables to detach flakes of different sizes more effectively, implying the development of a more comprehensive understanding of the role of the angle of blow in flake formation by ∼1.5 Ma.

Hominid Alluvial Corridor (HAC) of the Guadalquivir and Guadaíra River Valleys (Southern Spain): Geoarchaeological Functionality of the Middle Paleolithic Assemblages during the Upper Pleistocene

This research addresses the geomorphological connectivity existing amid the piedmont’s karstic fillings (Sierra de Esparteros) and the Guadaíra and Guadalquivir Rivers’ alluvial terraces (SW of Spain), spotted with vestiges of human activities (Middle Palaeolithic). This study includes the analysis of 20 geoarchaeological sites and 28 lithic assemblages, with a total of 13,233 lithic pieces. Techno-typological and use–wear (SEM) analyses were conducted on these artifacts. Depending on the raw materials and the provenance of these lithic industries, two groups of assemblages were identified: one made of quartzite from the north, and another made of flint from the south. Two main geochronological periods were established (OSL and U/Th): (1) a short duration (MIS6/MIS5) and (2) a long duration (MIS5/MIS3). Techno-typological analysis showed three sorts of activities: (a) the provision and distribution of raw materials, (b) knapping, and (c) other activities that imply the use of a lithic workshop (LW), along with the settlement characteristics of habitual or recurrent (HS), temporary (TS), and indeterminate (IN). This geoarchaeological connectivity is called the “hominid alluvial corridor” (HAC). The underlined features are the geomorphological units, the continuum alluvial series, the raw material of the lithic industries as an indicator of provenance and transportation throughout the alluvial system, and the use–wear analysis of the tool-kit to interpret the functionality of the pieces.

Geometric Morphometric Analyses of Levallois Points from the Levantine Middle Paleolithic do not Support Functional Specialization

ABSTRACT Levallois points are a prominent part of many Levantine Middle Paleolithic assemblages. They are either produced intentionally or incidentally by the Levallois core reduction technique and are of a generally similar shape, although the degree to which they were used as specialized tools has been questioned. Here, we examine Levallois points using geometric morphometric analyses to assess the range of shape variation in this artifact type. We then compare Levallois point shape variation and symmetry to a sample of Late Pleistocene-aged Folsom projectile points from North America. Folsom are highly standardized projectile points that current evidence suggests were primarily used for hunting ancient bison. Our results indicate that Levallois points are more variable and asymmetrical than Folsom and therefore more generalized than Folsom. Differences in manufacturing technique, hafting, and delivery system when used as weapons are posited as playing roles in the differences in shape and symmetry that we document.

Middle Palaeolithic occupation of the southern North Sea Basin: evidence from the Sandscaping sediments emplaced on the beach between Bacton and Walcott, Norfolk, UK

ABSTRACTDuring the summer of 2019, the Bacton to Walcott Coastal Management Scheme involved the emplacement on to the foreshore of 1.8 million cubic metres of sand and gravel dredged from the submerged sediments of the Palaeo‐Yare in the southern North Sea 11 km off Great Yarmouth. During the following 2‐year period, an active group of collectors identified Palaeolithic artefacts eroding from these sediments, including Levallois cores and flakes, and cordiform handaxes. In this paper, we present an analysis of the lithic artefacts, and consider the relationships between the different elements of the assemblage. We discuss its significance in the context of the Middle Palaeolithic record of northwest Europe and the light it shines on the human occupation of the submerged landscape of the southern North Sea during the later Middle Pleistocene. Interrogation of beach survey data shows the reworking of these sediments to the southeast towards Happisburgh where archaeologically significant exposures of the Cromer Forest‐bed Formation are located. The implications of the introduction of a Middle Palaeolithic assemblage to this stretch of the North Norfolk Coast are considered, highlighting the importance of continuing dialogue between researchers, local authorities and local communities for capturing information and monitoring this critical Palaeolithic resource.

Archaeological evidence for two culture diverse Neanderthal populations in the North Caucasus and contacts between them.

Neanderthals were widespread during the Middle Palaeolithic (MP) across Europe and Asia, including the Caucasus Mountains. Occupying the border between eastern Europe and West Asia, the Caucasus is important region regarding the Neanderthal occupation of Eurasia. On current radiometric estimates, the MP is represented in the Caucasus between about 260-210 ka and about 40 ka. Archaeological record indicates that several culture diverse MP hominin populations inhabited the Caucasus, but the region complex population history during this period remains poorly understood. In this paper, we identify for the first time the archaeological evidence indicating contacts between two culture diverse MP Neanderthal populations in the North Caucasus and discuss the nature of these contacts. Basing on the lithic assemblages that we excavated at Mezmaiskaya cave in the north-western Caucasus (Kuban River basin) and Saradj-Chuko grotto in the north-central Caucasus (Terek River basin), dating from MIS 5 to MIS 3, and comparative data from other MP sites in the Caucasus, we identify two large cultural regions that existed during the late MP in the North Caucasus. The distinctive toolkits and stone knapping technologies indicate that the MP assemblages from Mezmaiskaya cave and other sites in the west of North Caucasus represent a Caucasian variant of the Eastern Micoquian industry that was wide spread in central and eastern Europe, while the assemblages from Saradj-Chuko Grotto and other sites in the east of North Caucasus closely resemble the Zagros Mousterian industry that was wide spread in the Armenian Highlands, Lesser Caucasus and Zagros Mountains. The archaeological evidence implies that two culture diverse populations of Neanderthals settled the North Caucasus during the Late Pleistocene from two various source regions: from the Armenian Highlands and Lesser Caucasus along the Caspian Sea coast, and from Russian plain along the Sea of Azov coast.

The Earliest Paleolithic Assemblages from Denisova Cave in the Altai

The article presents the results of multidisciplinary studies of the Early Middle Paleolithic assemblages from the lower part of the Denisova Cave Pleistocene sequence in the East Chamber and the Main Chamber of the cave. Data on geochronology, small and large vertebrate fauna, palynology, stratigraphy and micromorphology of sediments containing the earliest archaeological fi nds at the site, as well as on petrography, traceology and archaeozoology are presented. We des cribe human fossils and aDNA studies based on them. These materials demonstrate that the fi rst inhabitants of the cave and those associated with the Early Middle Paleolithic traditions were Denisovans. On the basis of the collection, which includes over 35,000 artifacts, the technology and typology of the Denisova industry are reconstructed. We focus on the comparison of the Denisova Early Middle Paleolithic with chronologically closest industries of North and Central Asia. The most similar industry is the Acheulo-Yabrudian of the Near East. Parallels concern primary reduction techniques and tool types. A hypothesis explaining the appearance of Middle Paleolithic traditions in Southern Siberia is proposed. We demonstrate continuity in the evolution of the lithic industries of Denisova up to the autochthonous emergence of the Upper Paleolithic ca 50,000 years ago.

Bulb retouchers half a million years ago: New evidence from late Acheulean Jaljulia, Israel

Bulb retouchers (or flint retouchers) are a specific tool category applied in stone knapping activities, commonly associated with Middle Palaeolithic assemblages and late Pleistocene hominins in north Africa, the Levant and Europe. A few flint flakes with pits on the ventral surface were identified in the lithic assemblage of Area D at late Acheulean Jaljulia, dated to ca. 500 ka. Here we present a techno-typological analysis of these items as well as the percussive marks. Like many Middle Palaeolithic bulb retouchers, those used at Jaljulia consist mainly of retouched items or combined matrices (a tool and/or a core). Here we present the earliest evidence for the use of bulb retouchers during late Acheulean times in the Levant, thus demonstrating their roots in the Lower Palaeolithic lithic repertoire. Further analyses will allow us to more accurately interpret their use as a percussor. This study constitutes the first step in understanding the role and significance of bulb retouchers in early human tool-kits during the late Lower Palaeolithic in the Levant and demonstrates that such items were envisioned and employed hundreds of thousands of years earlier than previously known.

The MIS 4 environmental stress impact on hominin occupation in the northwestern Caucasus: New evidence from the Hadjoh 2 site

The Hadjoh 2 open-air site is one of a few Middle Palaeolithic sites known in the northwestern Caucasus, which provide evidence of both the early (MIS 5) and late (MIS 3) stages of the Middle Palaeolithic occupation of the region. The 2020 multidisciplinary research indicates that Hadjoh 2 preserves four distinct Middle Palaeolithic layers, which house the evidence for hominins that produced the Middle Palaeolithic assemblages and visited the site periodically from about 120–100 ka in MIS 5d to about 50–45 ka in MIS 3. At present, Hadjoh 2 is the only Middle Palaeolithic open-air site in the North Caucasus, in which the site's lithostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental conditions were investigated by means of modern-level studies, including palynological and paleopedologic analyses, and magnetic proxy data.

Archaic hominins maiden voyage in the Mediterranean Sea

When archaic hominins started sea-crossings and whether or not seas were barriers to their dispersal, is highly debated. This paper attempts to provide insights into these issues, focusing on the Aegean Sea. The study shows that the Central Aegean Island Chain was insular from the surrounding landmasses over the last 450 ka and contests previously available Aegean Sea palaeo-geography. This, in association with the spatiotemporal patterning of Lower and Middle Paleolithic assemblages in the margin of the Mediterranean Sea, implies that pre-sapiens, as early as 450 ka BP: (a) were sea-crossing the Aegean Sea; (b) were encouraged by the favorable land/seascape configuration to attempt sea-crossings and (c) spread to the Circum-Mediterranean basin sourcing from the Levant, following two converging routes, the one via the Aegean Sea and/or the Bosporus land-bridge and the other via the Gibraltar straits. Furthermore, the above presented findings provide substantial evidence that the archaic hominins had developed sea-crossing behaviours as early as 450 ka BP.

Recently Discovered Middle Palaeolithic Foothill Site at Kundakhai in the Southern Bargarh Upland of Odisha: A Preliminary Report

The present report is the result of our intensive investigation conducted in the southern part of the Bargarh upland, Odisha with particular reference to an inselberg located close to the village of Kundakhai. The most interesting aspect of the lithic assemblage recovered from this site a pre-dominance of Levallois elements the assemblage includes cores, flakes, a very few blades and bladelets, a solitary example of a semi-handaxe of chert, The quartzite hammers were imported most probably imported from the Ong river valley, about 8 kilometers south of the Kundakhai site. Except the two hammers and the semi-finished handaxe imported from nearby sources located within a radius of about 8 kilometers, all other artefacts recovered from this site are made on silicified rock of which the inselberg is formed. The assemblage recovered from the site is predominantly flake-based, with a near absence of blades and bladlets. The flakes are exclusively made on locally available rock source. In terms of raw material use and other aspects, the studied assemblage completely differs from the Middle Palaeolithic sites widely distributed in the upper Jira River of the northern part of the Bargarh uplands, where artefacts are mostly made on medium-fine grained quartzite abundantly available in the Debrigarh-Lohara masiff, thus showing Middle Palaeolithic assemblage variability in the studied region.

An Early Presence of Modern Human or Convergent Evolution? A 247 ka Middle Palaeolithic Assemblage from Andhra Pradesh, India

The region of South Asia, located between the prepared core-based technologies in the west and simple core technologies in the east, is crucial in the modern human dispersal routes. The nature and chronology of initial modern human presence in the region and associated lithic technologies – microlithic vs the Middle Palaeolithic prepared core technology – are debated between the coastal and continental routes of dispersals. Recent research, however, has pushed back the antiquity of Middle Palaeolithic technology in the region to 385 ± 64 ka, suggesting the possibility of local innovation. However, the age mentioned above is isolated spatially and requires further studies to support the local innovation model. Our research in the Paleru river basin, Andhra Pradesh (SE India), have identified several Palaeolithic sites in a stratigraphic context. We present the results of a systematic examination at the Hanumanthunipadu (Andhra Pradesh) site, where the deepest of three geomorphologically distinct phases of the sedimentary sequence contained Palaeolithic artefacts. The fine-grained sediments in the sequence, p-IR-IRSL dated to > 247 ± 32 ka, yielded Middle Palaeolithic artefacts that imply South Asian Middle Palaeolithic assemblages may be a part of local innovations that emerged from the preceding Late Acheulian technologies.

The Early Middle Palaeolithic lithic industry of Dederiyeh Cave, Northwest Syria

The Lower-to-Middle Paleolithic transition of the Levant has attracted much attention, particularly because the early Middle Paleolithic is the period when the earliest anatomically modern humans fossils known to date in Eurasia have been attested in that part of Asia . The associated lithic assemblages are a significant source of information for investigating the cultural landscape of this important transition. This paper presents a new dataset from the 2003–2009 excavations at Dederiyeh Cave, northwest of Syria. A techno-typological analysis of the lithic industry reveals a common practice of blade blank production, which corroborates the other known early Middle Paleolithic assemblages of the Levant. However, its strong emphasis on Levallois core reduction and sidescraper manufacturing is noteworthy. The significance of this finding deserves further research from multiple viewpoints, including the functional and spatio-temporal variability of hominin activities in this period. It will be also important to interpret the techno-typological diagnostics of the early Middle Paleolithic assemblage of Dederiyeh considering its geographic location at the northern end of the Levant, distant from the previously known sites in the central and southern Levant.

Percuteurs et retouchoirs au Paléolithique moyenen péninsule Ibérique : caractérisationet mode de fonctionnement

Although Palaeolithic bone retouchers have been the object of both specific and large-scale studies in recent years (work of Auguste, Mallye, Hutson and their collaborators), the percussive stone tools used for knapping actions have only been analyzed from a partial and limited perspective. However, the characterization of the latter as tools for developing knapping techniques in different Prehistoric periods, and more specifically in the Middle Palaeolithic, is crucial. Percussive stone tools are analyzed here according to the physical features (measures, weight and raw material) of the selected blanks (usually cobbles and pebbles) and the percussive action modes recorded on them, as observed in the macroscopic use-wear traces and their location on the tools’ surfaces (referred here as “active zone of percussion” [ZAP]). The direction of use is inferred from these two parameters. Our study is based on the analysis of 12 Middle Palaeolithic assemblages from the Iberian Peninsula. These assemblages are located in sites with different geographical and geological contexts, showing different types of occupational and technological contexts, and comprising different chrono-cultural periods. This exhaustive analysis, including up to 202 percussive tools gathered in a wide geographic and chronological framework, has allowed us to define the factors involved in tool selection, and especially the patterns of use related to technological choices regardless of other factors, such as the lithological context. Our results show that the type of occupation and the knapping technical system were the most determinant factors in the selection and use of percussive stone tools during the Iberian Middle Palaeolithic.

Neanderthal Fossils, Mobile Toolkit and a Hyena Den: The Archaeological Assemblage of Lateral Gallery 1 in Cova Del Gegant (NE Iberian Peninsula)

Lateral Gallery 1 (GL1) in Cova del Gegant is a Middle Palaeolithic assemblage yielding diagnostic Neanderthal remains, together with Mousterian tools and faunal remains. It is a good archive for evaluating the environmental conditions of the coastal areas during MIS 4 and MIS 3 in the NE of the Iberian Peninsula, and also the Neanderthals’ behaviour and mobility. Here we provide a comprehensive assessment of all of the data available from GL1, such as lithics, human remains, fauna and chronostratigraphic details. The biotic ecofacts studied point to the development of a coastal plain in front of the cave and indicate that local conditions likely favoured a large variety of ecosystems characterised by open environments and woodland-edge taxa, and favoured repeated visits by humans during the Middle Palaeolithic. The evidence suggests that the gallery was mainly used by carnivores, such as hyenas, and also by Neanderthals as a brief stopping place, in view of the presence of transported and abandoned ergonomic lithic artifacts and/or the placement of bodies (or parts of bodies). The regional context suggests high human mobility and emphasises the variability of Neanderthal behaviour.