Middle Logs Research Articles

Measuring Butt Log and Middle Log Volume of Eucalyptus Camaldulensis Using Different Methods in Erbil Province

The volume of each butt log and middle log of an individual tree at a 5-meter log length was calculated by using five different formulas (Newton`s, Smalian`s, Huber`s, Hossfeld`s, and Centroid method). The volume of the butt logs and middle logs was compared to the real volume (control), which was calculated by aggregating the volume measurements at (0.5) meters using Newton's method. Measurements were taken from 50 trees of (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) planted in Al-Khabat area in Erbil governorate. The sampled trees presented diameter at breast height (DBH) ranged from 30.2 to 75.6 cm and total tree height range from 13 to 27 m. The result showed that Newton`s formula was superior to all other formulas for estimating butt log volume of eucalyptus tree species plantation and Smalian`s formula was less accurate than other formulas. On the other hand, the centroid method was superior to all other formulas for estimating the middle log volume of eucalyptus tree species in the district of khabat in Erbil province. Moreover, the Hossfeld formula was less accurate than other formulas.

The Usefulness of Pine Timber (Pinus sylvestris L.) for the Production of Structural Elements. Part I: Evaluation of the Quality of the Pine Timber in the Bending Test.

The study assessed the quality of pine lumber by marking the modulus of elasticity in the horizontal system. The research material was a plank with the following dimensions: 137 mm wide × 39.50 mm thick × 3485 mm long. The pine wood was obtained by sawing timber in the form of logs with round cross sections and originating from the Forest Division Olesno (50°52′30″ N, 18°25′00″ E). Each long log was sawn to provide four logs of about 3.5 m, which were marked as butt-end logs (O), middle logs (S)—2 items, and top logs (W). The origin of the logs from the trunk (Pinus sylvestris L.) has a significant impact on the physical and mechanical properties of the wood from which they are made. Only butt-end logs (log type O) allows for the production of high-quality timber elements. The pine timber that was evaluated in this paper had a high density of about 570 kg/m3 and a high percentage of timber items were assigned to class C24 and higher (above 50%). The adopted horizontal model of evaluation of the modulus of elasticity gave similar results to those obtained in an evaluation according to the EN-408.

In-stand debarking with the use of modified harvesting heads: a potential solution for key challenges in European forestry

Modern forestry is increasingly confronted with challenges that appear with intensive forest management and the progression of the effects of climate change. The forestry sector is able to react to the changing conditions by adapting management plans, forest structure or planting tree species with a higher stress resistance. However, during stand management activities, silvicultural treatments and harvesting operations can have an impact on the further development of the remaining forest ecosystem. In Germany, the most widely used harvesting system for thinning operations is a single-grip harvester used for felling and processing trees followed by a forwarder for timber extraction from the machine operating trails to roadside. In this research project, debarking rollers and other modifications designed for Eucalyptus harvesting heads were tested on conventional harvesting heads for the first time to assess the possibility of adding debarking to mechanized forest operations under Central European conditions. Seven field tests with varying tree species, diameters and age classes, were established within German state forests in Lower Saxony and in Bavaria. These tests were repeated in both summer and winter seasons to evaluate the influence of associated tree sap flows on debarking quality. Three different harvesting heads were modified to assess the altered mechanical characteristics and setups. To assess debarking ability originating from head modifications, a photo-optical measurement system developed within the scope of the project was used. The results demonstrate that especially for summertime operations, simple modifications to currently used harvesting heads are able to provide an average debarking efficiency up to 90% depending on the modifications. Another key finding is that a negatively affected sap flow, experienced during wintertime operations, resulted in 46% lower debarking efficiency, while spruce bark beetle infestations only resulted in a wider spread of the variation. Additionally, the vertical position of the log within the tree proved to have an influence on debarking efficiency, resulting in 15% lower average debarking for butt logs and 9% for top logs as compared to middle logs. Since a debarking process requires the stem to be fed through the harvesting head on multiple occasions to remove bark, average harvesting productivity might be reduced by approx. 10% compared to productivity measured with conventional harvesting heads. Considering the results and the extent of the modifications, the system proved to be a potential addition to existing harvesting methods facing changing challenges in future forestry.

ACCURACY OF CONVENTIONAL COMPUTATIONS IN ASSESSING VOLUME OF SMALL DIAMETER LOGS OF HOPEA ODORATA OCIATED WITH SHOREA ROBUSTA

The accuracy of volumetric computation of small diameter logs based on mathematical formulae was evaluated. Plantation logs of 13-year-old Hopea odorata with diameter measurements of 20 to 30 cm were assessed using Huber’s, Smalian’s, Newton’s and truncated cone formulae. The reference volume of each log was determined using the fundamental method of water-displacement. Results of average values showed that all measurements were higher, compared to reference volume. Empirical evidence indicated that the truncated cone formula was the most precise measurement compared to other formulae. In the analyses of the separated sections, strong linear correlations between mathematical computations and reference volume were observed in middle logs. In contrast, evaluation of bottom and top logs showed lower r2 values. A correction factor was developed and proposed to estimate a more accurate volume of bottom logs. Based on standard geometrical profile of the logs, other plantation species fit for similar computation were suggested.

Effects of log position in the stem and commercial thinning on jack pine chip dimensions produced by a chipper-canter

Fifteen stems of jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) coming from three commercial thinned (CT) plots (control, moderate, and intensive thinning) in the Abitibi-Temiscamingue region, Canada, were cross-cut into three 2.4 m length sections: bottom, middle, and top logs. Logs were processed with a chipper-canter at three cutting widths (CW 12.7, 19.1, and 25.4 mm), producing chips and a three faced cant. Chips were assessed by thickness, width, and length. Knot characteristics [total knot number (TKN) and area (TKA)] were assessed in the three cant faces. Growth ring attributes [earlywood density, latewood density (LWD), ring density (RD), earlywood proportion (EWP), ring width, and rings per mm], mechanical properties (shear, splitting, modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture in bending), and basic density were evaluated on samples obtained within each CW area. The weighted mean chip thickness (WCT) was significantly affected by the log position in the stem (LPS) and CW. WCT increased as CW increased. Jack pine produce thicker chips than black spruce, when processed under the same cutting parameters. Thickness of chips coming from bottom and middle logs was similar due to a greater taper of the bottom log, which slightly increased this dimension. Thickest chips were produced in the top log due to a higher TKA and TKN towards the top of the stem. Multiple linear regressions showed that TKA, CW, and RD were significant predictors of WCT. Chip size distributions were significantly affected by the CT, LPS, and CW. Thinned stands logs appeared to produce smaller chips than natural stand logs. Moreover, chip thickness distribution was affected primarily by TKA and EWP, while the width and length distribution was mainly affected by EWP, LWD, and TKN. Chip size in jack pine is to some degree determined by knot attributes, growth ring characteristics, and wood density of the raw material. These results suggest the potential advantage of sorting logs prior to chipping, either by species, LPS and/or provenance (thinned or natural stands).

The impact of mechanical log surface damage on chip size uniformity during debranching and debarking Eucalyptus pulpwood logs using a single-grip harvester

Mechanised harvesting operations are becoming more prevalent in South Africa with the realisation that motormanual and manual harvesting operations pose significant health and safety risks to workers. The damage inflicted by single-grip harvester feed rollers and delimbing knives on log surfaces during debranching and debarking eucalypts, may affect eventual chip quality. Chip quality influences pulp quality and recovery in the kraft pulping process. This study investigates the influence of two mechanised debranching and debarking treatments on Eucalyptus pulp logs (threeand five-feed roller passes along the stem surface) by feed rollers and delimbing knives on chip uniformity, size and purity. The two mechanised treatments to three log classes (base, middle and top logs) were compared with chips produced from manually debarked logs. Manually debarked logs produced significantly less undesirable-sized chips than both three and five-pass processed logs. The volume of undesirablesized chips produced during chipping also increased with decreasing log size. Manually debarked logs produced chips with significantly less bark than three-pass-processed logs (0.008% vs 0.062%), and five-pass-processed logs produced chips with significantly less bark than three-pass-processed logs (0.018% vs 0.062%). Middle logs also produced chips with significantly less bark than base logs (0.016% vs 0.056%), and top logs produced chips with significantly less bark than base logs (0.017% vs 0.056%). In all cases the bark content on logs was considerably less than the maximum of 1.0% generally specified by kraft pulp mills.

Yield of stilbene glucosides from the bark of young and old Norway spruce stems

Bioactive stilbene glucosides are the major constituents of the acetone extracts of the phloem and bark of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) trees. We studied their variation patterns across phloem and bark within the stems of Norway spruce. The total yields of stilbene glucosides (astringin, isorhapontin, and piceid) from trees were estimated. Bark samples were collected from young (18 years-old) and older trees (37 years-old), representing age and size typical for energy wood harvesting and the first commercial thinning, respectively. Different bark layers of younger trees had 10%–63% lower average amount of stilbene glucosides than the bark layers of older trees. The inner bark had the highest mass fraction of stilbene glucosides (2.7%–4.8% of dry weight (d.w.)) and the outermost bark showed the lowest amount (0.4%–1.2% d.w.). Axially along the stem, the highest amount of stilbene glucosides was found at the stem base in the young trees (average over bark zones 2.1% d.w.) and at the breast height and the base of the living crown in the older trees (average over bark zones 3.6% d.w.). Astringin and isorhapontin yielded the highest amounts, while the share of piceid was the smallest. The total yield of stilbene glucosides was dependent on the bark biomass, and positively correlated with total wood and bark volume. The basal stem was the most valuable stilbene source in both younger and older trees. The bark of Norway spruce from the first commercial thinnings, especially of butt and middle logs, can provide feasible source for high-value extracts.

Modeling the effect of length on yield of sawn timber grades in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.)

The aim of the study was to model and analyse the effect of length on grade yield of timber from different stem parts in Picea abies, and to use the models to simulate the cost of reduced grade yield due to increased length. The boards were simulated having lengths ranging from 20 to 60 dm starting at stump level, 4 m above stump level and 8 m above stump level, respectively. Logistic regression models showed that length had a significant effect on grade yield, and this length effect was stronger in strength grading according to INSTA 142 (IN) compared to appearance grading according to Nordic Timber (NT). The length effect was most pronounced in butt logs, and somewhat greater in middle logs compared to top logs. Also a smaller length effect in inner boards compared to boards farther from the pith was found for IN-grading. The cost of the decrease in grade yield with increasing length will depend on the assumptions about the price gap between the grades. Current market prices in both grading rules gave a decrease in value of the sawn timber in stock by about 6% with an increase in the log length from 45 to 60 dm. In addition, a decrease in yield of timber in longer logs will amplify this effect, while a higher efficiency in the production process will diminish it.

Impact of log position in the tree on mechanical and physical properties of black spruce medium-density fibreboard panels

Mechanical and physical properties of medium-density fibreboard (MDF) panels made from black spruce ( Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP) top, middle, and butt logs were studied. The analysis of variance and analysis of covariance were both performed to examine the impact of log position in the tree on panel modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), internal bond (IB), linear expansion (LE), thickness swell (TS), and water absorption. Results indicate that MOE and IB strength of MDF panels made from top and middle logs were significantly superior to those of panels made from butt logs; however, there was no significant difference in MOE and IB between panels made from top and middle logs. Water absorptions of top and middle log panels were significantly lower than that of panels made from butt logs, and the difference in water absorption between panels made from top and middle logs was not significant. TS of top log panels was the smallest among the panels from the three log positions in the tree and was significantly different from those of middle and butt log panels. TS of butt log panels was the highest, which was significantly different from that of top and middle log panels. The differences in LE among the panels made from top, middle, and butt logs were not significant. The comparison of MOR of top, middle, and butt log panels was dependent on panel density because of the interactions among the three groups. Top and middle log panels showed superior properties, because the thinner cell walls of fibres from top and middle logs resulted in an increased compaction ratio compared with the butt log panels. Panel density affected both panel MOR and MOE considerably; however, its impact on IB, LE, TS, and water absorption was not significant in this study. The equations describing the linear relationships between MOR, MOE, and panel density were developed.

Mold resistance of medium density fiberboard panels made from black spruce, hybrid poplar, larch and a mixture of S-P-F chips

Eleven types of medium density fiberboard (MDF) panels were manufactured from fresh-felled trees of black spruce, hybrid poplar, larch and a mixture of spruce, pine and fir (S-P-F) wood chips at a target density of 740 kg/m3 bonded with 10% commercial urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin. Black spruce panels were fabricated from fibers located in three wood age zones (1–20, 21–40 and over 40 annual rings) of bottom logs, as well as top, middle and bottom logs, separately. Hybrid poplar panels were made from three clones with codes 915303, 915311, and 915313. Mold resistance of these panels was tested by exposing panels in an incubation chamber set at favourable temperature and relative humidity (RH) conditions for mold growth for 4 weeks. The results indicate that MDF panels made from black spruce juvenile wood (1–20 annual rings) were more resistant to mold infection comparing to the other types of panels based on Duncan’s multiple-range test at 0.05 of probability. Panels made of fibers taken from black spruce transition zone (21–40 annual rings) and mature wood zone (over 40 annual rings), and top, middle and bottom logs, hybrid poplar clones 915303, 915311, and 915313, larch and S-P-F wood chips were not significantly different, and these panels were severely infected by mold after 4 weeks of incubation. Nine fungal species predominately infected the tested samples. This laboratory experiment indicates that MDF panels made from black spruce transition and mature wood, and top, middle and bottom logs, hybrid poplar, larch and a mixture of S-P-F chips are susceptible to mold growth and protection measures are necessary in order to improve mold susceptibility of those panels when used in humid conditions or for exterior applications.

Shape and distribution of knots in a sample of picea abies logs

In an attempt to develop a better understanding of the effect of knottiness on the yield of logs for sawn timber products, the present study examines the position and geometrical characteristics of 429 knots found in seven Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) middle logs from southern Finland. The raw data used in this study were in the form of coordinates of points located on the knot surface recorded in a cylindrical (R, L, T) reference frame. The data were smoothed using a non linear three‐dimensional model. A curvature analysis of the knot pith was used to differentiate the curved and straight portions of the knots. This analysis made possible calculation of knot angles, symmetry, ovality and volume. The major finding of this study is the uneven distribution of knots around the log circumference. Nearly 50% of the total knot volume was concentrated in one‐third of the log facing the south‐east. Knots were also more prominent in higher portions of the logs studied. These observations support the argument that the uneven distribution of knots offers potential for improving the grade yield of timber sawn from trees harvested in high‐latitude countries.

Tree growth stresses—Part IV: Visco-elastic strain recovery

Experimental methods for the determination of visco-elastic strain recoveries in timber are described. Intensive studies were carried out on Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell., to determine the characteristics of visco-elastic, longitudinal strain recovery, and its distribution along radial limes, in wood from butt, middle and top logs of trees; and also to investigate the effect on strain recovery of different diameters of trees and tree ages. Much less extensive tests, made on three other eucalyptus species and on Pinus radiata D. Don, were undertaken to explore the possibility of strong species differences.